Acquisition in Multinational Coperation Essay Example for Free

Acquisition in Multinational Coperation EssayPurpose This stingceptual paper aims to draw upon fresh k nontyity and presidential termal psychology literature to adjudicate swindleict occurrences, exploring the limitations of the predominant query paradigm that treats defraudict episodes as occurring in sequence, as discrete isolated incidents. Design/methodology/approach The paper addresses a long-standing issue in get wordict focal point inquiry, which is that the predominant typology of short-changeict is get a linefusing. The obscureity perspective challenges the fundamental paradigm, which has dominated research in the seeict old age, in which bunkoict episodes occur in sequence and in isolation, with private instructors using unmatchable predominant form of studyict occlusion behavior. Findings The ndings be two-fold rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the precaution of these swipeicts will be highly complex and will be find by a number of inuencing factors and se flimflamd, this moves ascertainjecture beyond the two dimensional duel cabbagecern perspective, in that the adaptable have a go at itr dealing with these multiple, coincident instructicts will also need to bunko gamesider the possible implications of their elect system along with the changing micro environment in which they operate.Originality/value This paper adds value to the eld of swindleict theory by moving beyond two dimensions and exploring a sequential eventuality perspective for hornswoggleict vigilance at heart the organization. It competes that multiple hustleict episodes tooshie occur simultaneously, requiring managers to use differing behaviors for successful shortict anxiety. Keywords victimizeict worry, Conict resolution, presidential termal rip offict, Individual behaviour, Inter soulfulnessal relationsPaper type Conceptual paperInternational journal of Conict vigilanceVol. 21 zero(prenominal) 2, 2010pp. 186-201q Eme rald Group print Limited1044-4068DOI 10.1108/10444061011037404IntroductionIt is immediately over 40 years since Louis Pondy (1967) wrote his seminal article on shortict within the organization and its steering and almost 20 years since his reections on his earlier work were published (Pondy, 1989)1. In 1967 Pondy established what was for two decades the mainly accepted paradigm of conict that conict episodes occur as temporary disruptions to the otherwise cooperative bloods which make up the organization (Pondy, 1967). In his subsequent reections on his earlier work and that of others, Pondy proposed that conict is an inherent feature of organisational life, rather than an occasional breakdown of cooperation (Pondy, 1989). This radically challenged the previous paradigm. Indeed, Pondy (1989) even suggested that research into the phenomenon of cooperation within the organization could be benecial in providing pass on insight into conict within the organization, come toing t hat it was cooperation, notconict, which was the wild state requiring investigation. Yet, for almost two decades, Pondys abstractisation of conict as a natural state for the organization has remained largely unexplored despite the emergence of a complexness perspective which explores multiple elements of the conict situation or cooperative state. One possible reason why Pondys challenge has not been answered is that somewhat confusion has arisen over the terms and typologies employ for the classication of conict episodes. Consequently, debates ab come out of the closet(predicate) conict structure or bit eat tended to dominate the research agenda. The potentiality for confusion arising from these various conict classications will be discussed in this paper. Where conict watchfulness behaviors cave in been studied, researchers be possessed of tended to focus on a two-dimensional approach or dual concern theory example (Thomas, 1976) which suggests that individualists a dopt conict precaution behaviors based on their comprehend self interests and those of others i.e. concern for self (competitive behaviors) versus concern for other (accommodating behaviors). Although this approach to the research of conict and its management ts well with Pondys (1967) original paradigm, it is challenged by the complexity perspective that has emerged in psychology research. The complexity perspective of intra organizational conict maintains that social relationships are more than complex than hitherto thought, and that the unfolding conict is inuenced by a wide variety of conditions. Moreover the complexity perspective encourages the consideration of simultaneous complexity (more than wholeness event occurring simultaneously) and of how the mode of conict management affects the progenys (Munduate et al., 1999). This fresh perspective has enabled researchers to examine the point at which behavioral style is changed and the effect on the conict episode (Olekaln s et al., 1996) and to look at how disparate behaviors are combined (Janssen et al., 1999).With the recent developments in the complexity perspective of conict management research (Van de Vliert et al., 1997 Munduate et al., 1999), the time has come to win explore the possible consequences of the complexity perspective whether it is in fact the case that conict is an inherent condition within the organization (Pondy, 1989) whether conict episodes donot occur in isolation but occur frequently and simultaneously (Euwema et al., 2003) and whether complex sequences of adaptive behaviors are required to continually manage the constantly changing intraorganizational, conict environment. Before we finish do this, and to provide a common ground for discourse, we rst need to examine some of the theories around conict typology that have arisen in the psychology and management literature and which whitethorn be the cause of some confusion.Conict terms and typologiesConict is a broad constr uct that has been studied extensively across several disciplines covering a wide range of social interactions. Previous conict research has identied four main levels of conict in the context of human behavior and relationships as summarized by Lewecki et al. (2003)(1) Inter pigeonholing conicts between groups of individuals which brush aside range in size and complexity due to the m some(prenominal)(prenominal) relationships involved, including multinational conict between nations.(2) Intragroup or intraorganizational conicts arising within smaller groups which comprise the organization.A re-evaluationof conict theory187IJCMA21,2188(3) Inter individualal conict that is, conict at an individual level, conict between individuals, or conict between an individual and a group. (4) Intrapersonal conict on a personal level, where the conict occurs in wholenesss own mind.Although these four levels of conict all appear across both the psychology and management literature, it is the third level ( social conicts within the organization or the reactions an individual or group has to the perception that two parties have aspirations that cannot be achieved simultaneously) that has become the central eld of research within the organization (Putnem and Poole, 1987). In 1992, Thomas proposed a simplied denition of interpersonal conict as the service which begins when an individual or group aspects negatively affected by another individual or group. The conict consists of a perception of barriers to achieving stars goals (Thomas, 1992). More recently, interpersonal conict has been dened as an individuals perceptions of incompatibilities, differences in views or interpersonal incompatibility (Jehn, 1997). Conict at this level has mostly been seen as adversarial and as having a negative effect upon relationships (Ford et al., 1975). These denitions presuppose that an opposition or incompatibility is perceived by both parties, that some interaction is victorious place, and that both parties are able to inuence or get involved that is. that thither is some full point of interdependency (Medina et al., 2004). Interpersonal conict could arise within organizations where, for example, customer-facing departments such as Sales make promises to customers that other departments then have to deliver. In this domain of intraorganizational, interpersonal conict, both Pondys (1966, 1967) work and recent developments adopting the complexity perspective are of particular interest This broad area of intraorganizational, interpersonal conict has been further subdivided into two types relationship conict and task conict. Relationship conict arises between the actors through their subjective emotional positions, whereas task conict relates primarily to the more objective tasks or issues involved (Reid et al., 2004). A series of studies conrmed this duality between relationship and task. Wall and no.an (1986) identied people lie versus task oriented conict. In the early to mid-1990s Priem and Price (1991), Pinkley and nonethcraft (1994), Jehn (1995) and Sessa (1996) all identied relationship and task as discrete aspects of conict. The picture became rather more complex in the late 1990s. In 1995 Amason et al. redened conict types as emotional and cognitive and in 1999 Van de Vliert further redened these types as task and person conict. In working toward a more comprehensive model ofintraorganizational, interpersonal conict, Jameson (1999) suggested three dimensions for conict(1) content(2) relational and(3) situational.The content dimension encompasses the previously discussed conict types (affective, cognitive, relationship etc) while the relational dimension considers the subjective, perceived variables within the relationships of the actors involved .trust.status....A re-evaluationof conict theoryseriousness stop of interdependencyrecord of success andthe number of actors involved.The situational dimension examines the variables which may be most relevant in selecting an appropriate conict management strategy. These include time pressure, the potential impact of the conict episode, the degree of escalation and the range of options available in the management of the conict episode (Jameson, 1999). Meanwhile, Sheppard (1992) criticized the multiplicity of terms that were being used to retrace types of interpersonal conict, and the needless confusion that this caused. Theresult of the many approaches described above is that there is no general model for the typology of interpersonal conict within the organization. In the absence of such a model, other researchers have defecaten contrastive approaches, using the antecedents of the conict episode to describe conict types. Examples of this proliferation include role conict (Walker et al., 1975), gender conict (Cheng, 1995) and goal conict (Tellefsen and Eyuboglu, 2002). This proliferation of terms or typologies has unsurprisingly led to confusion, most noticeably wi th the term interpersonal conict being used to describe purely relationship or emotional conict (Bradford et al., 2004) or conict being dened in terms of emotion only, adding to the wide range of terms already used (Bodtker and Jameson, 2001). Thus, at a time when international, interorganizational, intraorganizational, interpersonal and intrapersonal conicts are being extensively studied with conict dened and operationalized in a variety of modality of lifes, no widely accepted and consistent model has emerged to shape conict research (Reid et al., 2004). Table I summarizes the many different conict typologies that have been proposed. Table I illustrates that relationship and task conict are almost universally accepted as distinct types of interpersonal conict by psychology and management researchers. successionAuthor(s)Conict typology198619911994199519951996199619971999199920002000200220032003200420042005Wall and no(prenominal)anPriem and PricePinkley and NorthcraftJehnAmason e t al.SessaAmasonAmason and SapienzaJamesonJanssen et al.Friedman et al.Jehn and ChatmanTellefsen and EyubogluBradford et al.De Dreu and WeingartReid et al.Tidd et al.Guerra et al.People oriented, task orientedRelationship, taskRelationship, taskRelationship, taskCognitive, affectiveTask, person orientedAffective, cognitiveAffective, cognitiveContent, relational, situationalTask, person orientedRelationship, taskTask, relationship, work onGoal conictsInterpersonal, taskRelationship, taskRelationship, taskRelationship, taskRelationship, task189Table I.A summary of thetypologies of conictIJCMA21,2xclIn addition, many researchers have identied a third type of conict which relates to the environment in which managers operate, described as situational conict ( Jameson, 1999) or process conict ( Jehn and Chatman, 2000). We believe that a consistent conict typology is called for, to aid future research into the complex nature of intraorganizational conict. In this paper, we propose that fu ture researchers should know three types of interpersonal conict. However, since the terms relationship and task are vulnerable to misinterpretation we advocate using the terms affective and cognitive (following Amason, 1996 and Amason and Sapienza, 1997), in conjunction with process (Jehn and Chatman, 2000), to describe the three types of interpersonal conict. These terms, which reect the more specic terminology used in the psychology literature, are dened in Table II. As Table II shows, the typology we propose is as follows. Affective Conict isa term describing conicts concerned with what people believe and feel about their relationships including such dimensions as trust, status and degree of interdependence (Amason and Sapienza, 1997). Cognitive Conict describes conicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task, roles and functions. Process Conict relates to conicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture (Ama son and Sapienza, 1997 Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Using this typology for conict between individuals or groups of individuals within the organization avoids confusion over the use of the terms interpersonal, person or relationship often used when referring to affective conict, while task conict is clearly rattling(a) from process conict, addressing all the issues previously outlined. These terms will therefore be used passim the remainder of this paper. Having argued that taxonomic confusion has hindered conict research through the misuse of existing taxonomies (Bradford et al., 2004) or where language has resulted in the use of different terms to describe the same conict type (see Table I), we now move on to consider the implications or consequences of intraorganizational conict and whether it is al government agencys negative or can have positive consequences (De Dreu, 1997). Consequences of conict operable or impaired?Some researchers exploring attitudes towards conict have con sidered the consequences of conict for individual and team performance (Jehn, 1995) and have found that interpersonal conict can have either functional (positive) or dysfunctional (negative) burdens for team and individual performance (e.g. Amason, 1996). Moreover, the consequences of conict can be perceived and felt in different ways by different actors experiencing the conict episode (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Thus, conict is situationally and perceptually relative.Conict typeAffectiveTable II.A proposed taxonomy ofconictDenitionConicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships with other individuals or groupsCognitiveConicts concerned with what people know and understand about their taskProcessConicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or cultureThe traditional view of conict takes the view that conict exists in opposition to co-operation and that conict is wholly dysfunctional, putting the focus on resolution rath er than management (e.g. Pondy, 1966). This perspective can be traced forward to more recent work. Where conict is dened as the process which begins when one person or group feels negatively affected by another (Thomas, 1992), there is an implication of obstruction to either party achieving their goals, which is readily interpreted negatively. This can result in conict avoidance or downsizing of conict management behavior, leading to perceived negative consequences on team or individual performance (De Dreu, 1997). Negatively-perceived conict episodes can increase tension and antagonism between individuals and lead to a lack of focus on the required task (Saavedra et al., 1993 Wall and Nolan, 1986) while avoidance and suppression can also have long term negative consequences such as stiing creativity, promoting groupthink and causing an escalation in any existing conict (De Dreu, 1997). Not surprisingly, where interdependence is negative (where one party wins at the expense of the other although they have some dependency in their relationship) any conict will be viewed negatively (Janssen et al., 1999). The perception of conict will also be negative where the conict is personal, resulting in personality clashes, increased stress and frustration. This type of relationship conict can impede the decision-making process as individualsfocus on the personal aspects rather than the task related issues (Jehn, 1995). In contrast to the somewhat negative perception of intraorganizational conict outlined above, more recent conict management theory has begun to suggest that certain types of conict can have a positive effect upon relationships and that the outdo route to this effect is through acceptance of, and effective management of, inevitable conict, rather than through conict avoidance or suppression (De Dreu, 1997). When individuals are in conict they have to address major issues, be more creative, and see different aspects of a problem. These challenges can miti gate groupthink and stimulate creativity (De Dreu, 1997). Naturally, where there is high positive interdependence (an agreeable outcome for both parties), the conict episode will be viewed much more positively (Janssen et al., 1999). Moreover, Jehn (1995) has suggested that task- and issue-based cognitive conict can have a positive effect on team performance. Groups who experience cognitive conict have a greater judgement of the assignments at hand and are able to make better decisions in dealing with issues as they arise (Simons and Peterson, 2000). For example, research has shown that, when individuals are exposed to a devils advocate, they are able to make better judgments than those not so exposed (Schwenk, 1990). Schulz-Hardt et al. (2002) suggested that groups make better decisions where they started in disagreement rather than agreement. In these examples, conict has a functional (useful and positive) outcome. We have argued that the notion of functional conict has shifted t he eld of conict research away from conict resolution and towards consideration of the management behaviors which can be adopted in dealing with conict in order to gain the surpass possible outcome (De Dreu, 1997 Euwema et al., 2003). Next, we examine research into conict management behaviors and explore some of the managerial tools that have been developed to help managers to deal with intraorganizational, interpersonal conict. Conict management behaviorsConict management can be dened as the actions in which a person typically engages, in response to perceived interpersonal conict, in order to achieve a coveted goalA re-evaluationof conict theory191IJCMA21,2192(Thomas, 1976). Demonstrably, conict management pays off previous research has indicated that it is the way in which conict episodes are addressed which determines the outcome (Amason, 1996). However, there is disagreement between researchers as to the degree to which managers can and do adopt different conict management b ehaviors. Previous research has considered three different approaches the one best way perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984) the contingency or situational perspective (Thomas, 1992 Munduate et al., 1999 Nicotera, 1993) and the complexity or conglomerated perspective (Van de Vliert et al., 1999 Euwema et al., 2003). Arguably the simplest perspective on conict management behavior is the one best way perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984), which agues that one conict management style or behavior (collaboration) is more effective than any other. However, it argues that individuals have a particular preferred behavioral predisposition to the way in which they handle conict. Thus, from the one best way perspective, the conict-avoiding manager may have a behavioral predisposition to avoidance strategies, whereas the accommodating manager may prefer accommodating solutions. In this paradigm, the most constructive solution is considered to be collaboration, since collaboration is alw ays positively interdependent it has a joint best outcome, generally described as win/win (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). The one best way approach suggests that a more aggressive, competitive, negatively interdependent approach (in fact, any conict management approach other than collaborative) can result in suboptimal outcomes (Janssen et al., 1999). However, the one best way perspective raises more questions than it answers. It does not explain how managers are able to collaborate if theyhave a different behavioral predisposition, nor does it provide enjoin that collaboration always produces the best outcome (Thomas, 1992). A more general problem with the one best way approach is that it may not be very useful if managers truly have little or no control over their approach to conict management, the practical applications are limited. The one best way perspective does not consider the passage of time, that behaviors could be changed or modied during any interaction, nor the effect any previous encounters may have on the current experience (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Moving beyond the one best way perspective, in which only collaborative behaviors are considered to provide the most desirable outcome, the contingency perspective maintains that the optimal conict management behavior depends on the specic conict situation, and that what is appropriate in one situation may not be appropriate in another (Thomas, 1992). In this paradigm, the best approach is dependent upon the particular set of circumstances. The implications, which are very different to the one best way perspective, are that individuals can and should select the conict management behavior that is most likely to produce the desired outcome. Thus, conict management behaviors are regarded as a matter of preference (rather than innate, as in the one best way view), and the outcome is dependent on the selection of the most appropriate mode of conict management behavior. Until recently, conict research has been heavily inuenced by the one best way and contingency perspectives, focusing on the forte of a whiz mode of conict management behavior (primarily collaboration) during a single conict episode (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984). Thus the one best way and contingency perspectives do not necessarily offer a real-world view in which managers both can and do change their behaviors adapting to the situation perhaps trying different approaches to breaka deadlock or to improve their bargaining position taking into account changing circumstances in the microenvironment and the subsequent inuence upon the actions of individuals involved in any conict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). A fresh approach is provided by the complexity perspective, which characterizes conicts as being dynamic and multi-dimensional. In such circumstances, the best behavioral style in dealing with any one conictepisode may vary during, or between, conict episodes (Medina et al., 2004 Nicotera, 1993). For conict in a complex world, neither the one best way nor the contingency perspective would necessarily produce optimal results. If conict does not occur discretely and individually (Pondy, 1992a), existing approaches may not describe the world as managers actually experience it. Arguably, these approaches have articially limited conict research to a at, two-dimensional model. To address the shortcomings of traditional research and to incorporate the complexity perspective into conict management theory, we need to move beyond two dimensions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997).Beyond two dimensions of conict management theory fresh work by Van de Vliert et al. (1997) and Medina et al. (2004) has expanded current theory through consideration of the complexity perspective. The complexity perspective argues that any reaction to a conict episode consists of multiple behavioral components rather than one single conict management behavior. In the complexity perspective, using a mixture of accommodating, a voiding, competing, compromising and collaborating behaviors throughout the conict episode is considered to be the rule rather than the exception (Van de Vliert et al., 1997).To date, studies taking a complexity approach to conict management have adopted one of three different complexity perspectives. The rst examines simultaneous complexity and how different combinations of behaviors affect the outcome of the conict (Munduate et al., 1999). The second complexity approach focuses on the point of behavioral change and the outcome, examining either the behavioral phases through which the participants of a conict episode pass, or apply temporal complexity to look at the point at which behavioral style changes and the effect on the conict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). The third approach is the sequential complexity or conglomerated perspective, which is concerned with the different modes of conict management behavior, how they are combined, and at what point they change during the in teraction.The application of the complexity perspective to conict management researchhas revealed that managers use more than the ve behaviors suggested by the one best way perspective to manage conict. In their study of conglomerated conict management behavior, Euwema et al. (2003) argued that the traditional approach under-represents the individuals assertive modes of behavior and have as a result added confronting and process controlling, making seven possible behaviors (1) competing(2) collaborating(3) avoiding(4) compromising(5) accommodatingA re-evaluationof conict theory193IJCMA21,2194(6) confronting and(7) process controlling.Weingart et al. (1990) identied two types of sequential pattern Reciprocity, responding to the other party with the same behavior and Complementarity, responding with an opposing behavior. Applying a complexity perspective, the effectiveness of complementarity or reciprocity behaviors will be contingent upon the situation, the micro-environment, the num ber of conict episodes, and the types of conict present. The sequential pattern may in itself be complex, being dependent both upon the current situation and on varying behaviors throughout the interaction. A further, often unrecognized implication of complexity in conict is that each conict episode could be unique, being calm of different proportions of each of the affective, cognitive and process conict types (Jehn and Chatman, 2000).The implication for conict management strategy and the choice of the most appropriate behavior is immense. Therefore, a crude perspective is needed, in which conict and the response to conict is viewed as dynamic and changing over time, with each conict episode having a unique composition requiring a specic but exible approach in order to obtain the best possible outcome. We propose that this might result in a manager changing behavior during a conict episode, or indeed a manager adopting different behaviors for a number of conict episodes occurring simultaneously. In the next section, we take all these complex factors into account and propose a single, dynamic and comprehensive model of conict management behavior.Multiple, simultaneous conict episodesWe have shown that the eld of conict has become entangled in multiple terms and that research into conict management is struggling to reconcile two-dimensional models with the more complex situation encountered in the real world. A model is needed which considers the complexity of conict episodes and separates conict antecedents from conict types, recognizing that conict can relate to emotions and situations which have common antecedents. We propose that the way forward is to expand the conglomerated perspective into a sequential contingency perspective, in which the sequence of conict management behaviors adopted is dependent upon a number of inuencing factors in the micro-environment, the number of conict episodes being dealt with, their composition, and changes in the behaviors of the actors involved.A sequential contingency perspectiveThe sequential contingency perspective for intraorganizational, interpersonal conict proposes the word sense of an alternative paradigm which is that conict is ever-present and ever-changing in terms of its nature or composition and that it is the way in which these continuous conicts is managed which determines the outcome of any conict episode and the nature of any subsequent conicts. Figure 1 provides a visualization of Pondys (1992b) postmodern paradigm of conict and provides a foundation for the investigation of complex, multiple, simultaneous, intraorganizational conicts. This conceptual visualization of conict within the organizationprovides a three-dimensional representation of conict from the paradigm that conict is an inherent feature of organizational life. It shows how, at any one given point in time,A re-evaluationof conict theory195Figure 1.A conceptual visualizationof multiple, simultaneousconictthere can be a number of conict episodes experienced (y axis), each with different intensities (z axis) and duration (x axis). In addition, we have argued that each conict episode will have a unique composition, being made up of different proportions of cognitive, affective and process elements.The implications for conict management theory are twofold rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inuencing factors and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Using this three-dimensional conceptual visualization of conict within the organization we propose a sequential contingency model for managing interpersonal conict within the organization (Figure 2 ). The staple fiber elements of the framework in Figure 2 consider all the dimensions of conict and its management as previously discussed.the conict episode characteristics, the type and composition of any conict episode encountered (Amason, 1996 Jehn, 1995 Jehn, 1997 Pinkley andNorthcraft, 1994).the characteristics of the relationship(s) (Jehn, 1995).the characteristics of the individuals involved.the conict management behaviors and.the outcome of previous conict episodes (Van de Vliert et al., 1997).IJCMA21,2196Figure 2.A sequential contingencymodel for managingintra-organizational,interpersonal conictThe basic postulate of the model is that conict is a constant and inherent condition of the organization (that is, that conict episodes do not occur as isolated, anomalous incidents). Additionally, the effectiveness of the conict management behaviors in terms of its functionality or dysfunctionality is contingent upon, and moderated by, the nature of the conict, the characteristics of the individuals and relationships involved, and experience of previous conict. Thus, this model provides a framework for dealing with multiple, simultaneous conict episodes moving beyond the tradition two-dimensional approach.Future researchTo date there has been little empirical research into the degree to which individuals are able to adapt their behavior during an interaction, or on the value of the complexity perspective in dealing with complexintraorganizational conict. The future research agenda needs to explore conict through Pondys (1992b) alternative paradigm and expand on these theoretical ndings by investigating intraorganizational, interpersonal conict in a number of ways. We therefore set out a research agenda framed in terms of four research propositions.First, taking the sequential contingency perspective and adopting Pondys (1989) alternative paradigm for conict within the organization, research is needed to establish the occurrence of conict. Pondy (1992b) argue s that, rather than a sequence of discrete isolated incidents, conict is an inherent condition of social interaction within the organization and that conict episodes occur simultaneously not sequentially. This would imply thatP1a. Conict is a constant condition of interorganizational, interpersonal relationships.A re-evaluationof conict theoryP1b. Multiple conict episodes occur simultaneously.P1c. Conict episodes are complex, having differing compositions of affective, cognitive and process elements which change over time.The complexity perspective recognizes that different conict situations call for different management behaviors (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). This implies that managers can call upon a much wider range of approaches to conict management than previously thought. Moreover there is a further implication, which is that managers are able to adapt their behavior during conict episodes. Thus P2a. Managers use different behaviors to manage multiple conicts at any one time.P 2b. Managers change their behavior over time during the same conict episode. A substantial branch of recent conict management research has think on the outcomes of conict and has suggested that not all conict is negative (De Dreu, 1997 Simons and Peterson, 2000 Schultz-Hardt et al.,2002 Schwenk, 1990). Given this, we need a greater understanding of the effect that the behavior adopted has on the conict experienced, whether it mitigated or agitated the situation, and the consequences for any subsequent conict (Amason, 1996). ThusP3a. The behaviors that managers use affect the outcome of the conict. P3b. The behaviors that managers use affect subsequent conicts. Finally, re- call on the carpeting Pondys (1989) alternative paradigm and incorporating the additional perspectives that come from consideration of conict outcomes and the application of the complexity perspective, we argue that more research is needed into the relationship between the behaviors that managers adopt and whethe r these behaviors represent the conscious adaptation of an optimal approach to conict management. ThusP4.Conict management involves adapting a set of behaviors through which a degree of co-operation is maintained, as opposed to the use of behavior(s) which resolve(s) discrete isolated incidents of conict.Our purpose in setting out a new model and research agenda for conict management research, together with a set of detailed research propositions, is to move the eld beyond the consideration of conict episodes as discrete, isolated incidents and to encourage the investigation of different behaviors in different circumstances and their effectiveness. Future research needs to consider the complexity of conict and adopt a research paradigm which considers the behavioral strategies within long term complex interpersonal relationships.ConclusionThis paper has offered four contributions to the eld of conict and conict management. The rst is the clarication of conict typologies set out in T able II. The197IJCMA21,2198second contribution is the notion that business managers handle multiple and simultaneous conict episodes that require different approaches to resolving them, so that the existing models proposed for conict management are unlikely to chime with their actual experience. The third contribution is to map this in the form of a new theoretical model for conict management (Figure 2). The fourth contribution is to use this theoretical model to set out a set of research propositions to shape research that will shed light on the real conicts that managers have to face. Just 40 years on, and intraorganizational conict theory itself appears to be in conict. In order to resolve the apparent differences in research approach and perspective researchers need to establish some common ground upon which new theory can be empirically tested, allowing conict management theory to move beyond two dimensions and to explore complexity whilst adding clarity. Note1. First presented at the Academy of Management Meeting, August 14, 1986.ReferencesAmason, A. and Sapienza, H. (1997), The effects of top management team size and interaction norms on cognitive and affective conict, journal of Management, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 495-516.Amason, A.C. (1996), Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conict on strategic decision making resolving a conundrum for top management teams, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 123-48.Bodtker, A.M. and Jameson, J.K. 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(1973), The Resolution of Conict, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. Friedman, R., Tidd, S., Currall, S. and Tsai, J. (2000), What goes around comes around the impact of personal conict style on work conict and stress, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 32-55.Guerra, M.J., Martinez, I., Munduate, L. and Medina, F.J. (2005), A contingency perspective on the study of the consequences of conict types the role of organizational culture, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 157-76. Lewicki, R.J. and Sheppard, B.H. (1985), Choosing how to intervene factors affecting the use of process and outcome control in third party dispute resolution, Journal of Occupational Behavior, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 49-64.Tidd, S.T., McIntyre, H. and Friedman, R.A. (2004), The importance of role ambiguity and trust in conict perception unpacking the task conict to relationship conict linkage, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 364-84. About the authorsJames Speakman is Assistant Professor of International Negotiation at IESEG Business School, a member of Catholic University of Lille, where his attentions are focused on sales and negotiation. After working for 16 years in key account management sales he completed his PhD research at Craneld School of Management, where, using the Critical Incident Technique with an Interpretive Framework for coding to investigate intraorganizational, interpersonal conict and the behavioral sequences adopted in the management of these complex interpersonal, intraorganizational conict episodes. Other research interests include personal selling, past, present and future, where he conducted the US research for a multinational study on the future of personal selling and negotiation in context where his research interests include multi-cultural negotiation. Ja mes Speakman is the corresponding author and can be contacted at emailprotectedLynette Ryals specializes in key account management and marketing portfolio management, particularly in the area of customer protability. She is a Registered Representative of the London Stock Exchange and a Fellow of the Society of Investment Professionals. She is the Director of Cranelds Key Account Management Best Practice Research Club, Director of the Demand strand Management community and a member of Craneld School of Managements Governing Executive.To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail emailprotected Or visit our web site for further details www.emeraldinsight.com/reprintsA re-evaluationof conict theory201