Acquisition in Multinational Coperation Essay Example for Free

Acquisition in Multinational Coperation EssayPurpose This stingceptual paper aims to draw upon fresh k nontyity and presidential termal psychology literature to adjudicate swindleict occurrences, exploring the limitations of the predominant query paradigm that treats defraudict episodes as occurring in sequence, as discrete isolated incidents. Design/methodology/approach The paper addresses a long-standing issue in get wordict focal point inquiry, which is that the predominant typology of short-changeict is get a linefusing. The obscureity perspective challenges the fundamental paradigm, which has dominated research in the seeict old age, in which bunkoict episodes occur in sequence and in isolation, with private instructors using unmatchable predominant form of studyict occlusion behavior. Findings The ndings be two-fold rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the precaution of these swipeicts will be highly complex and will be find by a number of inuencing factors and se flimflamd, this moves ascertainjecture beyond the two dimensional duel cabbagecern perspective, in that the adaptable have a go at itr dealing with these multiple, coincident instructicts will also need to bunko gamesider the possible implications of their elect system along with the changing micro environment in which they operate.Originality/value This paper adds value to the eld of swindleict theory by moving beyond two dimensions and exploring a sequential eventuality perspective for hornswoggleict vigilance at heart the organization. It competes that multiple hustleict episodes tooshie occur simultaneously, requiring managers to use differing behaviors for successful shortict anxiety. Keywords victimizeict worry, Conict resolution, presidential termal rip offict, Individual behaviour, Inter soulfulnessal relationsPaper type Conceptual paperInternational journal of Conict vigilanceVol. 21 zero(prenominal) 2, 2010pp. 186-201q Eme rald Group print Limited1044-4068DOI 10.1108/10444061011037404IntroductionIt is immediately over 40 years since Louis Pondy (1967) wrote his seminal article on shortict within the organization and its steering and almost 20 years since his reections on his earlier work were published (Pondy, 1989)1. In 1967 Pondy established what was for two decades the mainly accepted paradigm of conict that conict episodes occur as temporary disruptions to the otherwise cooperative bloods which make up the organization (Pondy, 1967). In his subsequent reections on his earlier work and that of others, Pondy proposed that conict is an inherent feature of organisational life, rather than an occasional breakdown of cooperation (Pondy, 1989). This radically challenged the previous paradigm. Indeed, Pondy (1989) even suggested that research into the phenomenon of cooperation within the organization could be benecial in providing pass on insight into conict within the organization, come toing t hat it was cooperation, notconict, which was the wild state requiring investigation. Yet, for almost two decades, Pondys abstractisation of conict as a natural state for the organization has remained largely unexplored despite the emergence of a complexness perspective which explores multiple elements of the conict situation or cooperative state. One possible reason why Pondys challenge has not been answered is that somewhat confusion has arisen over the terms and typologies employ for the classication of conict episodes. Consequently, debates ab come out of the closet(predicate) conict structure or bit eat tended to dominate the research agenda. The potentiality for confusion arising from these various conict classications will be discussed in this paper. Where conict watchfulness behaviors cave in been studied, researchers be possessed of tended to focus on a two-dimensional approach or dual concern theory example (Thomas, 1976) which suggests that individualists a dopt conict precaution behaviors based on their comprehend self interests and those of others i.e. concern for self (competitive behaviors) versus concern for other (accommodating behaviors). Although this approach to the research of conict and its management ts well with Pondys (1967) original paradigm, it is challenged by the complexity perspective that has emerged in psychology research. The complexity perspective of intra organizational conict maintains that social relationships are more than complex than hitherto thought, and that the unfolding conict is inuenced by a wide variety of conditions. Moreover the complexity perspective encourages the consideration of simultaneous complexity (more than wholeness event occurring simultaneously) and of how the mode of conict management affects the progenys (Munduate et al., 1999). This fresh perspective has enabled researchers to examine the point at which behavioral style is changed and the effect on the conict episode (Olekaln s et al., 1996) and to look at how disparate behaviors are combined (Janssen et al., 1999).With the recent developments in the complexity perspective of conict management research (Van de Vliert et al., 1997 Munduate et al., 1999), the time has come to win explore the possible consequences of the complexity perspective whether it is in fact the case that conict is an inherent condition within the organization (Pondy, 1989) whether conict episodes donot occur in isolation but occur frequently and simultaneously (Euwema et al., 2003) and whether complex sequences of adaptive behaviors are required to continually manage the constantly changing intraorganizational, conict environment. Before we finish do this, and to provide a common ground for discourse, we rst need to examine some of the theories around conict typology that have arisen in the psychology and management literature and which whitethorn be the cause of some confusion.Conict terms and typologiesConict is a broad constr uct that has been studied extensively across several disciplines covering a wide range of social interactions. Previous conict research has identied four main levels of conict in the context of human behavior and relationships as summarized by Lewecki et al. (2003)(1) Inter pigeonholing conicts between groups of individuals which brush aside range in size and complexity due to the m some(prenominal)(prenominal) relationships involved, including multinational conict between nations.(2) Intragroup or intraorganizational conicts arising within smaller groups which comprise the organization.A re-evaluationof conict theory187IJCMA21,2188(3) Inter individualal conict that is, conict at an individual level, conict between individuals, or conict between an individual and a group. (4) Intrapersonal conict on a personal level, where the conict occurs in wholenesss own mind.Although these four levels of conict all appear across both the psychology and management literature, it is the third level ( social conicts within the organization or the reactions an individual or group has to the perception that two parties have aspirations that cannot be achieved simultaneously) that has become the central eld of research within the organization (Putnem and Poole, 1987). In 1992, Thomas proposed a simplied denition of interpersonal conict as the service which begins when an individual or group aspects negatively affected by another individual or group. The conict consists of a perception of barriers to achieving stars goals (Thomas, 1992). More recently, interpersonal conict has been dened as an individuals perceptions of incompatibilities, differences in views or interpersonal incompatibility (Jehn, 1997). Conict at this level has mostly been seen as adversarial and as having a negative effect upon relationships (Ford et al., 1975). These denitions presuppose that an opposition or incompatibility is perceived by both parties, that some interaction is victorious place, and that both parties are able to inuence or get involved that is. that thither is some full point of interdependency (Medina et al., 2004). Interpersonal conict could arise within organizations where, for example, customer-facing departments such as Sales make promises to customers that other departments then have to deliver. In this domain of intraorganizational, interpersonal conict, both Pondys (1966, 1967) work and recent developments adopting the complexity perspective are of particular interest This broad area of intraorganizational, interpersonal conict has been further subdivided into two types relationship conict and task conict. Relationship conict arises between the actors through their subjective emotional positions, whereas task conict relates primarily to the more objective tasks or issues involved (Reid et al., 2004). A series of studies conrmed this duality between relationship and task. Wall and no.an (1986) identied people lie versus task oriented conict. In the early to mid-1990s Priem and Price (1991), Pinkley and nonethcraft (1994), Jehn (1995) and Sessa (1996) all identied relationship and task as discrete aspects of conict. The picture became rather more complex in the late 1990s. In 1995 Amason et al. redened conict types as emotional and cognitive and in 1999 Van de Vliert further redened these types as task and person conict. In working toward a more comprehensive model ofintraorganizational, interpersonal conict, Jameson (1999) suggested three dimensions for conict(1) content(2) relational and(3) situational.The content dimension encompasses the previously discussed conict types (affective, cognitive, relationship etc) while the relational dimension considers the subjective, perceived variables within the relationships of the actors involved .trust.status....A re-evaluationof conict theoryseriousness stop of interdependencyrecord of success andthe number of actors involved.The situational dimension examines the variables which may be most relevant in selecting an appropriate conict management strategy. These include time pressure, the potential impact of the conict episode, the degree of escalation and the range of options available in the management of the conict episode (Jameson, 1999). Meanwhile, Sheppard (1992) criticized the multiplicity of terms that were being used to retrace types of interpersonal conict, and the needless confusion that this caused. Theresult of the many approaches described above is that there is no general model for the typology of interpersonal conict within the organization. In the absence of such a model, other researchers have defecaten contrastive approaches, using the antecedents of the conict episode to describe conict types. Examples of this proliferation include role conict (Walker et al., 1975), gender conict (Cheng, 1995) and goal conict (Tellefsen and Eyuboglu, 2002). This proliferation of terms or typologies has unsurprisingly led to confusion, most noticeably wi th the term interpersonal conict being used to describe purely relationship or emotional conict (Bradford et al., 2004) or conict being dened in terms of emotion only, adding to the wide range of terms already used (Bodtker and Jameson, 2001). Thus, at a time when international, interorganizational, intraorganizational, interpersonal and intrapersonal conicts are being extensively studied with conict dened and operationalized in a variety of modality of lifes, no widely accepted and consistent model has emerged to shape conict research (Reid et al., 2004). Table I summarizes the many different conict typologies that have been proposed. Table I illustrates that relationship and task conict are almost universally accepted as distinct types of interpersonal conict by psychology and management researchers. successionAuthor(s)Conict typology198619911994199519951996199619971999199920002000200220032003200420042005Wall and no(prenominal)anPriem and PricePinkley and NorthcraftJehnAmason e t al.SessaAmasonAmason and SapienzaJamesonJanssen et al.Friedman et al.Jehn and ChatmanTellefsen and EyubogluBradford et al.De Dreu and WeingartReid et al.Tidd et al.Guerra et al.People oriented, task orientedRelationship, taskRelationship, taskRelationship, taskCognitive, affectiveTask, person orientedAffective, cognitiveAffective, cognitiveContent, relational, situationalTask, person orientedRelationship, taskTask, relationship, work onGoal conictsInterpersonal, taskRelationship, taskRelationship, taskRelationship, taskRelationship, task189Table I.A summary of thetypologies of conictIJCMA21,2xclIn addition, many researchers have identied a third type of conict which relates to the environment in which managers operate, described as situational conict ( Jameson, 1999) or process conict ( Jehn and Chatman, 2000). We believe that a consistent conict typology is called for, to aid future research into the complex nature of intraorganizational conict. In this paper, we propose that fu ture researchers should know three types of interpersonal conict. However, since the terms relationship and task are vulnerable to misinterpretation we advocate using the terms affective and cognitive (following Amason, 1996 and Amason and Sapienza, 1997), in conjunction with process (Jehn and Chatman, 2000), to describe the three types of interpersonal conict. These terms, which reect the more specic terminology used in the psychology literature, are dened in Table II. As Table II shows, the typology we propose is as follows. Affective Conict isa term describing conicts concerned with what people believe and feel about their relationships including such dimensions as trust, status and degree of interdependence (Amason and Sapienza, 1997). Cognitive Conict describes conicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task, roles and functions. Process Conict relates to conicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture (Ama son and Sapienza, 1997 Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Using this typology for conict between individuals or groups of individuals within the organization avoids confusion over the use of the terms interpersonal, person or relationship often used when referring to affective conict, while task conict is clearly rattling(a) from process conict, addressing all the issues previously outlined. These terms will therefore be used passim the remainder of this paper. Having argued that taxonomic confusion has hindered conict research through the misuse of existing taxonomies (Bradford et al., 2004) or where language has resulted in the use of different terms to describe the same conict type (see Table I), we now move on to consider the implications or consequences of intraorganizational conict and whether it is al government agencys negative or can have positive consequences (De Dreu, 1997). Consequences of conict operable or impaired?Some researchers exploring attitudes towards conict have con sidered the consequences of conict for individual and team performance (Jehn, 1995) and have found that interpersonal conict can have either functional (positive) or dysfunctional (negative) burdens for team and individual performance (e.g. Amason, 1996). Moreover, the consequences of conict can be perceived and felt in different ways by different actors experiencing the conict episode (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Thus, conict is situationally and perceptually relative.Conict typeAffectiveTable II.A proposed taxonomy ofconictDenitionConicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships with other individuals or groupsCognitiveConicts concerned with what people know and understand about their taskProcessConicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or cultureThe traditional view of conict takes the view that conict exists in opposition to co-operation and that conict is wholly dysfunctional, putting the focus on resolution rath er than management (e.g. Pondy, 1966). This perspective can be traced forward to more recent work. Where conict is dened as the process which begins when one person or group feels negatively affected by another (Thomas, 1992), there is an implication of obstruction to either party achieving their goals, which is readily interpreted negatively. This can result in conict avoidance or downsizing of conict management behavior, leading to perceived negative consequences on team or individual performance (De Dreu, 1997). Negatively-perceived conict episodes can increase tension and antagonism between individuals and lead to a lack of focus on the required task (Saavedra et al., 1993 Wall and Nolan, 1986) while avoidance and suppression can also have long term negative consequences such as stiing creativity, promoting groupthink and causing an escalation in any existing conict (De Dreu, 1997). Not surprisingly, where interdependence is negative (where one party wins at the expense of the other although they have some dependency in their relationship) any conict will be viewed negatively (Janssen et al., 1999). The perception of conict will also be negative where the conict is personal, resulting in personality clashes, increased stress and frustration. This type of relationship conict can impede the decision-making process as individualsfocus on the personal aspects rather than the task related issues (Jehn, 1995). In contrast to the somewhat negative perception of intraorganizational conict outlined above, more recent conict management theory has begun to suggest that certain types of conict can have a positive effect upon relationships and that the outdo route to this effect is through acceptance of, and effective management of, inevitable conict, rather than through conict avoidance or suppression (De Dreu, 1997). When individuals are in conict they have to address major issues, be more creative, and see different aspects of a problem. These challenges can miti gate groupthink and stimulate creativity (De Dreu, 1997). Naturally, where there is high positive interdependence (an agreeable outcome for both parties), the conict episode will be viewed much more positively (Janssen et al., 1999). Moreover, Jehn (1995) has suggested that task- and issue-based cognitive conict can have a positive effect on team performance. Groups who experience cognitive conict have a greater judgement of the assignments at hand and are able to make better decisions in dealing with issues as they arise (Simons and Peterson, 2000). For example, research has shown that, when individuals are exposed to a devils advocate, they are able to make better judgments than those not so exposed (Schwenk, 1990). Schulz-Hardt et al. (2002) suggested that groups make better decisions where they started in disagreement rather than agreement. In these examples, conict has a functional (useful and positive) outcome. We have argued that the notion of functional conict has shifted t he eld of conict research away from conict resolution and towards consideration of the management behaviors which can be adopted in dealing with conict in order to gain the surpass possible outcome (De Dreu, 1997 Euwema et al., 2003). Next, we examine research into conict management behaviors and explore some of the managerial tools that have been developed to help managers to deal with intraorganizational, interpersonal conict. Conict management behaviorsConict management can be dened as the actions in which a person typically engages, in response to perceived interpersonal conict, in order to achieve a coveted goalA re-evaluationof conict theory191IJCMA21,2192(Thomas, 1976). Demonstrably, conict management pays off previous research has indicated that it is the way in which conict episodes are addressed which determines the outcome (Amason, 1996). However, there is disagreement between researchers as to the degree to which managers can and do adopt different conict management b ehaviors. Previous research has considered three different approaches the one best way perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984) the contingency or situational perspective (Thomas, 1992 Munduate et al., 1999 Nicotera, 1993) and the complexity or conglomerated perspective (Van de Vliert et al., 1999 Euwema et al., 2003). Arguably the simplest perspective on conict management behavior is the one best way perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984), which agues that one conict management style or behavior (collaboration) is more effective than any other. However, it argues that individuals have a particular preferred behavioral predisposition to the way in which they handle conict. Thus, from the one best way perspective, the conict-avoiding manager may have a behavioral predisposition to avoidance strategies, whereas the accommodating manager may prefer accommodating solutions. In this paradigm, the most constructive solution is considered to be collaboration, since collaboration is alw ays positively interdependent it has a joint best outcome, generally described as win/win (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). The one best way approach suggests that a more aggressive, competitive, negatively interdependent approach (in fact, any conict management approach other than collaborative) can result in suboptimal outcomes (Janssen et al., 1999). However, the one best way perspective raises more questions than it answers. It does not explain how managers are able to collaborate if theyhave a different behavioral predisposition, nor does it provide enjoin that collaboration always produces the best outcome (Thomas, 1992). A more general problem with the one best way approach is that it may not be very useful if managers truly have little or no control over their approach to conict management, the practical applications are limited. The one best way perspective does not consider the passage of time, that behaviors could be changed or modied during any interaction, nor the effect any previous encounters may have on the current experience (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Moving beyond the one best way perspective, in which only collaborative behaviors are considered to provide the most desirable outcome, the contingency perspective maintains that the optimal conict management behavior depends on the specic conict situation, and that what is appropriate in one situation may not be appropriate in another (Thomas, 1992). In this paradigm, the best approach is dependent upon the particular set of circumstances. The implications, which are very different to the one best way perspective, are that individuals can and should select the conict management behavior that is most likely to produce the desired outcome. Thus, conict management behaviors are regarded as a matter of preference (rather than innate, as in the one best way view), and the outcome is dependent on the selection of the most appropriate mode of conict management behavior. Until recently, conict research has been heavily inuenced by the one best way and contingency perspectives, focusing on the forte of a whiz mode of conict management behavior (primarily collaboration) during a single conict episode (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984). Thus the one best way and contingency perspectives do not necessarily offer a real-world view in which managers both can and do change their behaviors adapting to the situation perhaps trying different approaches to breaka deadlock or to improve their bargaining position taking into account changing circumstances in the microenvironment and the subsequent inuence upon the actions of individuals involved in any conict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). A fresh approach is provided by the complexity perspective, which characterizes conicts as being dynamic and multi-dimensional. In such circumstances, the best behavioral style in dealing with any one conictepisode may vary during, or between, conict episodes (Medina et al., 2004 Nicotera, 1993). For conict in a complex world, neither the one best way nor the contingency perspective would necessarily produce optimal results. If conict does not occur discretely and individually (Pondy, 1992a), existing approaches may not describe the world as managers actually experience it. Arguably, these approaches have articially limited conict research to a at, two-dimensional model. To address the shortcomings of traditional research and to incorporate the complexity perspective into conict management theory, we need to move beyond two dimensions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997).Beyond two dimensions of conict management theory fresh work by Van de Vliert et al. (1997) and Medina et al. (2004) has expanded current theory through consideration of the complexity perspective. The complexity perspective argues that any reaction to a conict episode consists of multiple behavioral components rather than one single conict management behavior. In the complexity perspective, using a mixture of accommodating, a voiding, competing, compromising and collaborating behaviors throughout the conict episode is considered to be the rule rather than the exception (Van de Vliert et al., 1997).To date, studies taking a complexity approach to conict management have adopted one of three different complexity perspectives. The rst examines simultaneous complexity and how different combinations of behaviors affect the outcome of the conict (Munduate et al., 1999). The second complexity approach focuses on the point of behavioral change and the outcome, examining either the behavioral phases through which the participants of a conict episode pass, or apply temporal complexity to look at the point at which behavioral style changes and the effect on the conict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). The third approach is the sequential complexity or conglomerated perspective, which is concerned with the different modes of conict management behavior, how they are combined, and at what point they change during the in teraction.The application of the complexity perspective to conict management researchhas revealed that managers use more than the ve behaviors suggested by the one best way perspective to manage conict. In their study of conglomerated conict management behavior, Euwema et al. (2003) argued that the traditional approach under-represents the individuals assertive modes of behavior and have as a result added confronting and process controlling, making seven possible behaviors (1) competing(2) collaborating(3) avoiding(4) compromising(5) accommodatingA re-evaluationof conict theory193IJCMA21,2194(6) confronting and(7) process controlling.Weingart et al. (1990) identied two types of sequential pattern Reciprocity, responding to the other party with the same behavior and Complementarity, responding with an opposing behavior. Applying a complexity perspective, the effectiveness of complementarity or reciprocity behaviors will be contingent upon the situation, the micro-environment, the num ber of conict episodes, and the types of conict present. The sequential pattern may in itself be complex, being dependent both upon the current situation and on varying behaviors throughout the interaction. A further, often unrecognized implication of complexity in conict is that each conict episode could be unique, being calm of different proportions of each of the affective, cognitive and process conict types (Jehn and Chatman, 2000).The implication for conict management strategy and the choice of the most appropriate behavior is immense. Therefore, a crude perspective is needed, in which conict and the response to conict is viewed as dynamic and changing over time, with each conict episode having a unique composition requiring a specic but exible approach in order to obtain the best possible outcome. We propose that this might result in a manager changing behavior during a conict episode, or indeed a manager adopting different behaviors for a number of conict episodes occurring simultaneously. In the next section, we take all these complex factors into account and propose a single, dynamic and comprehensive model of conict management behavior.Multiple, simultaneous conict episodesWe have shown that the eld of conict has become entangled in multiple terms and that research into conict management is struggling to reconcile two-dimensional models with the more complex situation encountered in the real world. A model is needed which considers the complexity of conict episodes and separates conict antecedents from conict types, recognizing that conict can relate to emotions and situations which have common antecedents. We propose that the way forward is to expand the conglomerated perspective into a sequential contingency perspective, in which the sequence of conict management behaviors adopted is dependent upon a number of inuencing factors in the micro-environment, the number of conict episodes being dealt with, their composition, and changes in the behaviors of the actors involved.A sequential contingency perspectiveThe sequential contingency perspective for intraorganizational, interpersonal conict proposes the word sense of an alternative paradigm which is that conict is ever-present and ever-changing in terms of its nature or composition and that it is the way in which these continuous conicts is managed which determines the outcome of any conict episode and the nature of any subsequent conicts. Figure 1 provides a visualization of Pondys (1992b) postmodern paradigm of conict and provides a foundation for the investigation of complex, multiple, simultaneous, intraorganizational conicts. This conceptual visualization of conict within the organizationprovides a three-dimensional representation of conict from the paradigm that conict is an inherent feature of organizational life. It shows how, at any one given point in time,A re-evaluationof conict theory195Figure 1.A conceptual visualizationof multiple, simultaneousconictthere can be a number of conict episodes experienced (y axis), each with different intensities (z axis) and duration (x axis). In addition, we have argued that each conict episode will have a unique composition, being made up of different proportions of cognitive, affective and process elements.The implications for conict management theory are twofold rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inuencing factors and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Using this three-dimensional conceptual visualization of conict within the organization we propose a sequential contingency model for managing interpersonal conict within the organization (Figure 2 ). The staple fiber elements of the framework in Figure 2 consider all the dimensions of conict and its management as previously discussed.the conict episode characteristics, the type and composition of any conict episode encountered (Amason, 1996 Jehn, 1995 Jehn, 1997 Pinkley andNorthcraft, 1994).the characteristics of the relationship(s) (Jehn, 1995).the characteristics of the individuals involved.the conict management behaviors and.the outcome of previous conict episodes (Van de Vliert et al., 1997).IJCMA21,2196Figure 2.A sequential contingencymodel for managingintra-organizational,interpersonal conictThe basic postulate of the model is that conict is a constant and inherent condition of the organization (that is, that conict episodes do not occur as isolated, anomalous incidents). Additionally, the effectiveness of the conict management behaviors in terms of its functionality or dysfunctionality is contingent upon, and moderated by, the nature of the conict, the characteristics of the individuals and relationships involved, and experience of previous conict. Thus, this model provides a framework for dealing with multiple, simultaneous conict episodes moving beyond the tradition two-dimensional approach.Future researchTo date there has been little empirical research into the degree to which individuals are able to adapt their behavior during an interaction, or on the value of the complexity perspective in dealing with complexintraorganizational conict. The future research agenda needs to explore conict through Pondys (1992b) alternative paradigm and expand on these theoretical ndings by investigating intraorganizational, interpersonal conict in a number of ways. We therefore set out a research agenda framed in terms of four research propositions.First, taking the sequential contingency perspective and adopting Pondys (1989) alternative paradigm for conict within the organization, research is needed to establish the occurrence of conict. Pondy (1992b) argue s that, rather than a sequence of discrete isolated incidents, conict is an inherent condition of social interaction within the organization and that conict episodes occur simultaneously not sequentially. This would imply thatP1a. Conict is a constant condition of interorganizational, interpersonal relationships.A re-evaluationof conict theoryP1b. Multiple conict episodes occur simultaneously.P1c. Conict episodes are complex, having differing compositions of affective, cognitive and process elements which change over time.The complexity perspective recognizes that different conict situations call for different management behaviors (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). This implies that managers can call upon a much wider range of approaches to conict management than previously thought. Moreover there is a further implication, which is that managers are able to adapt their behavior during conict episodes. Thus P2a. Managers use different behaviors to manage multiple conicts at any one time.P 2b. Managers change their behavior over time during the same conict episode. A substantial branch of recent conict management research has think on the outcomes of conict and has suggested that not all conict is negative (De Dreu, 1997 Simons and Peterson, 2000 Schultz-Hardt et al.,2002 Schwenk, 1990). Given this, we need a greater understanding of the effect that the behavior adopted has on the conict experienced, whether it mitigated or agitated the situation, and the consequences for any subsequent conict (Amason, 1996). ThusP3a. The behaviors that managers use affect the outcome of the conict. P3b. The behaviors that managers use affect subsequent conicts. Finally, re- call on the carpeting Pondys (1989) alternative paradigm and incorporating the additional perspectives that come from consideration of conict outcomes and the application of the complexity perspective, we argue that more research is needed into the relationship between the behaviors that managers adopt and whethe r these behaviors represent the conscious adaptation of an optimal approach to conict management. ThusP4.Conict management involves adapting a set of behaviors through which a degree of co-operation is maintained, as opposed to the use of behavior(s) which resolve(s) discrete isolated incidents of conict.Our purpose in setting out a new model and research agenda for conict management research, together with a set of detailed research propositions, is to move the eld beyond the consideration of conict episodes as discrete, isolated incidents and to encourage the investigation of different behaviors in different circumstances and their effectiveness. Future research needs to consider the complexity of conict and adopt a research paradigm which considers the behavioral strategies within long term complex interpersonal relationships.ConclusionThis paper has offered four contributions to the eld of conict and conict management. The rst is the clarication of conict typologies set out in T able II. The197IJCMA21,2198second contribution is the notion that business managers handle multiple and simultaneous conict episodes that require different approaches to resolving them, so that the existing models proposed for conict management are unlikely to chime with their actual experience. The third contribution is to map this in the form of a new theoretical model for conict management (Figure 2). The fourth contribution is to use this theoretical model to set out a set of research propositions to shape research that will shed light on the real conicts that managers have to face. Just 40 years on, and intraorganizational conict theory itself appears to be in conict. In order to resolve the apparent differences in research approach and perspective researchers need to establish some common ground upon which new theory can be empirically tested, allowing conict management theory to move beyond two dimensions and to explore complexity whilst adding clarity. Note1. First presented at the Academy of Management Meeting, August 14, 1986.ReferencesAmason, A. and Sapienza, H. (1997), The effects of top management team size and interaction norms on cognitive and affective conict, journal of Management, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 495-516.Amason, A.C. (1996), Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conict on strategic decision making resolving a conundrum for top management teams, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 123-48.Bodtker, A.M. and Jameson, J.K. (2001), Emotion in conict formation and its transformation application to organizational conict management, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 259-75.Bradford, K.D., Stringfellow, A. and Weitz, B.A. (2004), Managing conict to improve the effectiveness of retail networks, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 80 No. 3, pp. 181-95. Cheng, C. (1995), Multi-level gender conict compend and organizational change, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 8 No. 6, pp. 26- 39.De Dreu, C.K.W. (1997), Productive conict the importance of conict management and conict issue, in De Dreu, C.K.M. and Van de Vliert, E. (Eds), Using Conict in Organizations, Sage Publications, molar concentration Oaks, CA, pp. 9-22.Euwema, M.C., Van de Vliert, E. and Bakker, A.B. (2003), Substantive and relational effectiveness of organizational conict behavior, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 119-39.Ford, N.M., Walker, O.C. Jr and Churchill, G.A. (1975), Expectation specic measures of the intersender conict and role ambiguity experienced by salesmen, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 95-112.Jameson, J.K. (1999), Toward a comprehensive model for the assessment and management of intraorganizational conict developing the framework, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 268-94.Janssen, O., Van de Vliert, E. and Veenstra, C. (1999), How task and person conict shape the role of positive interdependence in managem ent teams, Journal of Management, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 117-42.Jehn, K.A. (1995), A multi-method examination of the benets and detriments of intragroup conict, administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 40 No. 2, pp. 256-82. Jehn, K.A. (1997), A qualitative analysis of conict types and dimensions in organizational groups, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 42 No. 3, pp. 530-57. Jehn, K.A. and Chatman, J.A. (2000), The inuence of proportionate and perceptual conict composition on team performance, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 56-73.Lewicki, R., Saunders, D., Barry, B. and Minton, J. (2003), Essentials of Negotiation, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill, Singapore.Medina, J.M., Dorado, M.A., de Cisneros, I.F.J., Arevalo, A. and Munduate, L. (2004), Behavioral sequences in the effectiveness of conict management, Psychology in Spain, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 38-47.Munduate, L., Ganaza, J., Peiro, J.M. and Euwema, M. (1999), Patterns of styles in conict management and effective ness, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 5-24.Nicotera, A.M. (1993), Beyond two dimensions a grounded theory model of conict-handling behavior, Management Communication Quarterly, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 282-306. Olekalns, M., Smith, P.L. and Walsh, T. (1996), The process of negotiating strategy and timing as predictors of outcomes, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 68 No. 1, pp. 68-77.Pinkley, R.L. and Northcraft, G.B. (1994), Conict frames of reference implications for dispute processes and outcomes, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 193-205. Pondy, L.R. (1966), A systems theory of organizational conict, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 246-56.Pondy, L.R. (1967), Organizational conict concepts and models, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 296-320.Pondy, L.R. (1989), Reections on organizational conict, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 94-8.Pondy, L.R. (199 2a), Historical perspectives and contemporary updates, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 253-5.Pondy, L.R. (1992b), Reections on organizational conict, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 257-61.Priem, R.L. and Price, K.H. (1991), Process and outcome expectations for the dialectic inquiry, devils advocacy, and consensus techniques of strategic decision making, Group Organization Studies, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 206-25.Putnem, L. and Poole, M.S. (1987), Conict and negotiation, in Jablin,F.M., Putnam, L.L., Roberts, K.H. and Porter, L.W. (Eds), Handbook of Organizational Communication, Sage, rude(a)bury Park, CA, pp. 549-99.Reid, D.A., Pullins, E.B., Plank, R.E. and Buehrer, R.E. (2004), Measuring buyers perceptions of conict in business-to-business sales interactions, The Journal of Business Industrial Marketing, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 236-49.Saavedra, R., Earley, P.C. and Van Dyne, L. (1993), Complex interdependence in task-performing groups, Journa l of Applied Psychology, Vol. 78 No. 1, pp. 61-73. Sessa, V. (1996), Using perspective taking to manage conict and affect in teams, The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 101-15.A re-evaluationof conict theory199IJCMA21,2200Schwenk, C.R. (1990), Effects of devils advocacy and dialectical inquiry on decision making a meta-analysis, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 47 No. 1, pp. 161-77.Sheppard, B.H. (1992), Conict research as schizophrenic disorder the many faces of organizational conict, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 325-34. Schulz-Hardt, S., Jochims, M. and Frey, D. (2002), Productive conict in group decision making genuine and drippy dissent as strategies to counteract biased information seeking, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 88 No. 2, pp. 563-86. Simons, T.L. and Peterson, R.S. (2000), Task conict and relationship conict in top management teams the pivotal role of intragroup tr ust, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 85 No. 1, pp. 102-11.Sternberg, R.J. and Soriano, L.J. (1984), Styles of conict resolution, Journal of individual(prenominal)ity and Social Psychology, Vol. 47 No. 1, pp. 115-21.Tellefsen, T. and Eyuboglu, N. (2002), The impact of a salespersons in-house conicts and inuence attempts on buyer commitment, Journal of Personal Selling Sales Management, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 157-72.Thomas, K.W. (1992), Conict and conict management reections and update, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 265-74.Thomas, K.W. (1976), Conict and conict management, in Dunnette, M.D. (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Rand McNally, Chicago, IL, pp. 889-935. Van de Vliert, E., Nauta, A., Euwema, M.C. and Janssen, O. (1997), The effectiveness of mixing problem solving and forcing, Using Conict in Organizations, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 38-52.Van de Vliert, E., Nauta, A., Giebels, E. and Janssen, O. (1999), Cons tructive conict at work, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 475-91. Walker, O.C., Churchill, G.A. Jr and Ford, N.M. (1975), Organizational determinants of the industrial salesmans role conict and ambiguity, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 32-9.Wall, V.D. Jr and Nolan, L.L. (1986), Perceptions of inequity, satisfaction, and conict in task-oriented groups, Human Relations, Vol. 39 No. 11, pp. 1033-52. Weingart, L.R., Thompson, L.L., Bazerman, H.H. and Caroll, J.S. (1990), Tactical behavior and negotiation outcomes, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 7-31.Further readingAmason, A.C., Hochwarter, W.A., Thompson, K.R. and Harrison, A.W. (1995), Conict an important dimension in successful management teams, Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 20-35.Blake, R.R. and Mouton, J.S. (1964), The Managerial Grid, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX. De Dreu, C. and Weingart, L.R. (2003), Task versus relationship conict, team performance, and team member satisfaction ameta-analysis, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88 No. 4, pp. 741-9.Deutsch, M. (1973), The Resolution of Conict, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. Friedman, R., Tidd, S., Currall, S. and Tsai, J. (2000), What goes around comes around the impact of personal conict style on work conict and stress, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 32-55.Guerra, M.J., Martinez, I., Munduate, L. and Medina, F.J. (2005), A contingency perspective on the study of the consequences of conict types the role of organizational culture, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 157-76. Lewicki, R.J. and Sheppard, B.H. (1985), Choosing how to intervene factors affecting the use of process and outcome control in third party dispute resolution, Journal of Occupational Behavior, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 49-64.Tidd, S.T., McIntyre, H. and Friedman, R.A. (2004), The importance of role ambiguity and trust in conict perception unpacking the task conict to relationship conict linkage, International Journal of Conict Management, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 364-84. About the authorsJames Speakman is Assistant Professor of International Negotiation at IESEG Business School, a member of Catholic University of Lille, where his attentions are focused on sales and negotiation. After working for 16 years in key account management sales he completed his PhD research at Craneld School of Management, where, using the Critical Incident Technique with an Interpretive Framework for coding to investigate intraorganizational, interpersonal conict and the behavioral sequences adopted in the management of these complex interpersonal, intraorganizational conict episodes. Other research interests include personal selling, past, present and future, where he conducted the US research for a multinational study on the future of personal selling and negotiation in context where his research interests include multi-cultural negotiation. Ja mes Speakman is the corresponding author and can be contacted at emailprotectedLynette Ryals specializes in key account management and marketing portfolio management, particularly in the area of customer protability. She is a Registered Representative of the London Stock Exchange and a Fellow of the Society of Investment Professionals. She is the Director of Cranelds Key Account Management Best Practice Research Club, Director of the Demand strand Management community and a member of Craneld School of Managements Governing Executive.To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail emailprotected Or visit our web site for further details www.emeraldinsight.com/reprintsA re-evaluationof conict theory201

The Labyrinth of Political Beliefs Essay Example for Free

The Labyrinth of Political Beliefs EssayPerhaps the most interesting and complicated part of Politics is the way it involves people. Different policy-making beliefs engage developed through years, depending upon the principles a person believes in and depending on the circumstances and instances around him or what we c both the agents of political socialization. Disputes and arguments with regards to political beliefs are clear and convincing evidence that Politics indeed plays a great role in our society. Out of the surveys, it shows that I am a libertarian who supports maximum liberty in twain personal and economic matters. The Worlds Smallest Political Quiz is the best survey that described my political beliefs. According to which. I am a Libertarian who tends to get hitched with individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market and defend civil liberties. Out of the legion( predicate) agents of political socialization, the Media and Press probably contributed most in molding and influencing my political beliefs. After reading the Pew inquiry Center report Beyond reddened vs. Blue, I prefer to be identified with the Republican Party because Ill always believe that business is necessary to protect individual rights (Beyond Red vs Blue). Further, I personally think that the Government should focus more in developing the economic aspects of the country rather than building up social and moral issues which are really immaterial when it comes to the countrys over-all progress. This exercise made me realize that despite disputes and arguments between different political beliefs, It is really the fight for citizens benefits and advantage that really matters, after all it would always be the root and cause. And the pertinent reason why people have different political views and beliefs is because there are many different political socialization agents that aff ect them.Works CitedBeyond Red vs. Blue Republicans Divided About Role of Government Democrats by Social and Personal Values. The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. http//people-press.org/reports/display.php3?PageID=946

Traditional Costing Method vs ABC

conventional Costing Method vs ABCIntroductionIn this essay we will discuss the handed-down be system and consider the alternative method offered by Activity Based Costing (ABC) technique. We will discuss how the dickens methods differ from each other and as well as from the beam termsing clays. The essay will as well as evaluate the value added by each costing system within a companys decision making attend to, in terms of the accuracy of information they provide.Cost systems differ in terms of which costs are allocated to the cost objects i.e. harvest-feast, service etc and also in terms of their levels of apportionment ingenuity. There are three main cost systems in existence, namely, the direct costing system, the conventional absorption costing system and the activity based costing system.The direct costing system as suggested by its name, only allocates direct costs to the products or services it does not enterprise to allocate indirect costs. Therefore, it repo rts only the contribution attributable from the product or service towards indirect costs incurred by the business. It is often referred to as a partial derivative costing system. The direct costing method is only pertinent for decision making process where the indirect costs are miniature part of the overall organisational costs or does not fluctuate greatly to changes in demand.Both the traditional and ABC system assign indirect costs to the product or service to give full costing information to the organisation in its decision making process.As illustrated in figure 1.0 above, there are two systems of assigning indirect costs to cost objects, namely, traditional costing system and ABC system. The traditional costing system has been in wasting disease since early 1900 and is motionless cosmos used today. The traditional costing method relies to a large extent on the use of arbitrary cost allocation, commonly the use of any wear upon or material absorption rate.Decision Mak ingIn order for companies to make viable decisions, they require accurate product costs. Without sufficient allocation of indirect costs it would be difficult for companies to differentiate between profitable and loss-making products and services. Therefore cost systems needs to accurately reflect the ingestion of resources by products, otherwise, product costs will be distorted and profitable products will be discontinued or rejected by the company and loss-making ones will be continued.Traditional costing system varies greatly in the level of sophistication to that of ABC in allocating indirect costs to the cost object. There is a general consensus that the traditional system is simplistic whereas ABC is much complex in its allocation technique. Therefore, traditional cost systems are inexpensive to operate, as it extensively uses an arbitrary cost allocation and dissolvents in low levels of accuracy. This in turn leads to higher cost of errors in product decisions being undert aken by organisations. ABC on the other hand, is more than expensive to operate as it makes extensive use of cause and effect cost allocations (use of cost drivers), but results in greater levels of accuracy and leads to less errors in decision making process.Traditional vs. ABCThe ABC system devises a heel of activity based cost centres, whereas with traditional systems, overheads tend to be pooled by departments (cost centres).Traditional costing method like ABC system use a two-stage process to allocate indirect costs, with the first stage comprising of overhead being allocated to departments both production and service, the service departmental costs are subsequently reallocated to production departments. ABC, however, assigns overheads to individual activity instead of departments. The second stage of the allocation process involves allocating costs from individual departments under traditional method and activity cost centres under the ABC system, into the cost objects. The traditional system uses only a small number of second stage allocation bases, which are linked to volume produced. ABC system on the other hand uses a large number of second stage cost drivers including non-volume based drivers i.e. number of production runs, number of purchase orders etc.In summary, the major distinguishing features of ABC system to that of the traditional method is that, a greater number of cost centres together with a variety of second stage cost drivers exist. This result in the ABC system delivering more accurate measurement of resources being consumed by a cost object, ensuring that centering undertakes correct decisions.ConclusionABC came to prominent during the 80s as a result of the limitations of traditional costing method and its value to decision making process of large blue cut organisations. In todays volatile market place where blue chip organisations are involved in the production and delivery of complex products and services, the traditional costi ng system and its use of volume based cost drivers like direct labour hours represent only a small fraction of total object costs.Volume based cost drivers assume that products consumption of overhead resources is directly connected to units produced. The use of volume based drivers to allocate indirect costs, which are considerably larger, results in inaccurate product costs and provides management with information which is of minute or no value. In fact the organisation runs the risk of making incorrect decisions about its profitable and unprofitable products and services which could result in financial ruin for the organisation and threaten its long term survival.Therefore, unsophisticated volume based overhead allocations using a declining direct labour cannot be warranted, principally when information processing costs are no longer a barrier to introducing more sophisticated cost systems like ABC. Furthermore, the graphic global competitiveness within the market place had made decision errors due to poor cost information more probable and more costly.Therefore, with use of traditional costing system, misleading information is reported. However, ABC system recognises that overheads are caused by other factors, beside volume, and it allocates overheads based on cause and effects, resulting in more accuracy in organisational decision making.However, mountains of management accounting practices continue to present evidence of organisations still using traditional costing. Hughes, S.B. and Paulson Gjerde, K.A. (2003) carried out a survey of US manufacturing companies and reported 35 per cent of respondent using traditional costing and a further 30 per cent using a junto of traditional with ABC. Therefore, it is evident that traditional costing still provides information which is useful for blue chip Companys decision making process, but they essential use the information only with the knowledge of its drawbacks.Word Count = 1,072References BibliographyDru ry, C. (2005) focus Accounting for Business 3rd Edition, ThomsonDrury, C. (2008) Management and Cost Accounting 7th Edition, South-WesternGowthorpe, C. (2008) Management Accounting, South-WesternHughes, S.B. and Paulson Gjerde, K.A. (2003) Do different cost system make a difference?, Management Accounting Quarterly, Fall, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.22-30

Ethical Arguments on Child Labour

Ethical Arguments on Child LabourThe honest arguments concerning organizations using suppliers which employment small fryren.For the time being, the number of pincer aimers exceeds 250 million worldwide. In fact, claw confinement is defined by the International Labour Organization (2008) as types of work performed by children below 18. In more or less cases, however, child crusade assumes regular work done by children under the age of 15 that assumes health hazards and virtually excludes obtaining education. The entire situation is worsened by the fact that many suppliers hiring children blatantly disregard international UN conventions on children rights as well as the provisions of applicable national legislations. By ignoring national laws that prohibit child labour under the age of 14, the contracted factories and local suppliers in poor countries actively apply children aged 11-14 to work in sweatshops to even up items for such(prenominal) brand names as Primark, Gap, Nike, Wal-mart, Target, Hanes etc for mere 6.5 c. per item (Gorgemans, n.d).The internationally acclaimed app arl retailers conventionally build up their globose businesses on contracting factories and suppliers in the developing countries. Therein, local employers apply wrong and illegal practices to the workforce while benefiting the abovementioned global retailers. For a number of times, these organizations were reported as such that argon exploiting child labour disregarding set ethical norms and legal regulations. In all cases, the traditional response from the corporate management is control to the lack of awareness of such unfair instances and injustice applications. This indicates that despite the impacts of closet groups and advocacy organizations these global brands are unwilling to bear either ethical or legal responsibility for their dishonest employment practices. Fortunately, owing to the enormous efforts of mingled international compact groups, the companies l ike these take recently taken adequate measures to cease unethical applications, particularly those associated with child labour (Gorgemans, n.d).By placing such enforcements, stuff organizations invaluably contribute to the expansion of civil partnership based on ethical principles of respect, justice and human right priority. In such a way, various pressure groups, media, and youth rights groups are fighting against dishonest companies and their suppliers to protect children from illegal exploitation. Fact is, it is al intimately impossible to reveal the truth since suppliers are operating in the areas that are uncorrectable to monitor, which enables the latter to conspire their unethical and illegal practices. Whenever the unethical scandals addressing child labour exploitation are revealed, the corporate managers tend to deny their awareness of such illegal happenings allowed in the contracted factories or suppliers. For example, Primark have been a subject to BBC news repor ts after the detection of child labour use in the clothing manufacturing, which made the company to conduct a follow-up investigation on their suppliers. In most cases, consequently, pressure groups cannot prove the rightness of their claims due to the insufficiency of authentic evidence, and therefore lose lawsuits. This provokes the situation where nobody is ethically responsible, while millions of unprotected child labourers are daily exploited worldwide. scour the US boycotting of the exports of Nepalese carpets construct by children in early 90s did not provide adequate solution to the child labour problem since this measure caused 7,000 Nepalese children victorious up prostitution (UNICEF, 2008).Ostensibly, the global problem of child labour is immense and in most instances falls beyond any reasonable ethical or legal control of the responsible authorities. Considering this, it is a common knowledge that legal regulations have always been based on the ethical principles r eflecting social honorablee. Therefore, primarily it is a question of ones morality and morale to intentionally accept and apply child labour for low pay and in appalling conditions. Nevertheless, in practical toll it seems that many suppliers actually do not mind unethical and illegal exploitation of child labour solely caring about enlarging their wage, expanding consumer markets and winning emulous advantages owing to cheap workforce that consists of ethically and legally unprotected children from Mali, Bangladesh, India, Cambodia, Liberia, Pakistan and many other destinations worldwide. To this end, according to International Labour Organization and the United Nations, the child labour is considered exploitative (UN General Assembly, 1989).Nonetheless, nearly half of all children labourers are traditionally engaged in the agricultural sector, though during the last two decades child labour has been actively applied by multinational corporations (Nike, GAP etc) and smaller c ompanies in manufacturing as the effective means to save on this virtually costless and easy operative workforce. Largely, the underdeveloped socio-economic situation in many world countries provokes parents to agree to their children exploiting in hazardous works that involve physical tensions and the use of complicated machinery and devices difficult to operate. Consequently, the reasons of child labour in poor countries are purely economic driven by poverty concerns, and for the time being there is no wizard international convention that is declaring child labour illegal (Hindman and Smith, 1999).The main ethical jazz in due respect is that under the umbrella of world famed brands, local suppliers are unethically applying child labour considering house-to-house poverty and the devastating domestic conditions in Africa and East Asia wherein most families often regard their materialization as the sole source of income (Hindman and Smith, 1999). Considering this, it is rather di fficult to say where the issue of ethics should begin. Hence, the analysis of applicable theoretical approaches is necessary to fully comprehend the seriousness of the issue. In essence, ethical theories are based on the core foundations, i.e. principles predetermining common goals intended to be achieved by every ethical theory, including but not limited to least harm, beneficence, justice, and autonomy (Ridley, 1998 Penslar, 1995). In fact the exploitation of child labour does not comply with either of the abovementioned ethical principles. Neither does it produce a dogmatic effect on children in accordance with the ethical principle of beneficence. According to the ethical principle of least harm, it is apparent that while companies are managing their short-term exporting and business concerns at the cost of the developing world, they are crippling millions of children by depriving them of the right for better future. In such a way employers show sum of money disrespect for children autonomy, including their concerns, preferences and actual motivations (Hindman and Smith, 1999). Finally, child labour is a true example of injustice practice which assumes overall adverse affects to child labourers and economy on the whole. This indicates that the global economy will continue to shrink since the gap between rich and poor is rapidly expanding, and hardly any organization needs uneducated and/or unhealthy employees either today or in the future.The application of ethical theories in case of child abuse practices is a rather delicate issue which necessitates addressing previous experiences of child labour applications by commodity suppliers. While illegally exploiting child labour, the suppliers preliminarily trespass the deontological theory and do so intentionally for the sake of companies win (Ridley, 1998 Penslar, 1995).For instance, since 1990s the international producer of sportswear Nike has been continually criticized by various right protection an d activist groups (e.g. The International Labor Rights Fund Vietnam Labour get word etc) and media (e.g. BBC Australian Channel 7 News etc) for exploiting forced labour practices, including women and child labour in Malaysia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Pakistan, China, Cambodia, and Mexico. In various contracted factories (e.g. in Vietnam, 1996), Nike was reported to wound overtime laws and minimum wage requirements. At that, the company provided employees with indecent working conditions while exploiting cheap overseas workforce within free trade zones to manufacture their commodities (Harsono, 1996). Worse than that, in the course of 1990s, Nike followed the unethical and unsanctioned practice of child labour exploitation in Pakistan and Cambodia while contracting the domestic factories to manufacture footballs. Even now, despite numerous anti-sweatshop (e.g. United Students against Sweatshops) and anti-globalization campaigns, Nike continue to exploit child labour in the areas wherei n monitoring or legal regulations are inadequate, which has ensured the company unprecedented profits over the last decade (Boggan, 2001). Considering such unethical and illegal practices, it is obvious that Nile is also breaching the ethical principles of utilitarianism, the rights ethical theory,the casuist ethical theory, the virtue ethical theory an/or their various combinations considering the circumstances. Since the law should be given the highest priority within the rights theory, Nikes practices should be regarded both unethical and illegal (Boggan, 2001 Harsono, 1996).The similar unethical applications have been reported to be used by Gap. In May 2006, Gaps supplier in Jordan known as Western, applied unpaid overtime and excessive child labour, and other unethical practices. In 2007, Gaps Indian factories contracted by Gap were reported to vastly apply child labour. The majority of claims from the pressure organizations concerned unsafe working conditions, unpaid off the c lock hours, forced abortion policies, which made the company to reconsider its employment practices. At that, feeling ethical and moral liability before the workforce, the Gap has been praised by advocacy and pressure groups (Verite, Labour behind the Label, Social Accountability International etc) for managing to dismiss unethical abuses of employees rights in accordance with the internally applied global social accountability standard assuming decent working conditions SA8000. To this end, the company does not employ children under 14 anymore, provides regular and transparent wage payment, and prohibits any physical or moral abuse on its contracted factories (Guardian 2007). Considering this, in 2007 the company has stupefy a genuine example of ethical practices application rewarded by the national industry media (e.g. Ethisphere Magazine CRO Magazine Business morals Magazine etc).The aforesaid(prenominal) examples indicate that the business companies operating in the global co mpetitive environment should consider ethical principles in addition to caring about profit-making. For this purpose, multinational companies bring in internal codes of ethics and release social responsibility reports on annual basis to underline their ethical responsibility before general public and relevant communities (Hindman and Smith, 1999). Nonetheless, as is seen, there are numerous conflicts between the theoretically-declared ethical norms and empirical applications which confront each other. To this end, in the US child labour is banned by law as well as the policies of the US firms, whereas child labour is allowed in Pakistan and inspires domestic benefits therein. Thus, depending on the respective cultural and ethical norms, child labour is differently perceived in various countries (Hall, n.d.).At that, ethical theories should be applied to provide moral reasoning while responding to conflict situations like child exploitation. Utilitarianism ethical theory intends to maximize delight in line with the limits of moral choice, whereas the deontological method seeks moral rules to choose the most relevant one to determine the moral action to be taken. In due sense, the utilitarian method is in favour of child labour since due to the gaining of extra income children maximize their own happiness as well as the delight of their parents who know that labour saves their children from street crime and/or prostitution. Conversely, the deontological method indicates that the practice of child labour violates moral norms and therefore child labour would need an alternative solution. For example, there are companies promoting educational programs for children by paying their families for being able to use their labour since they are 14 years old. This approach seems well-balanced, however, from the ethical perspective, the current dilemma indicate the non-coincidence of cultural relativism and ethical universalism (Adler, n.d).The discussed issue is currentl y unsolved considering the ethical viewpoint under which the grandeur of ethical and moral norms and values differs from culture to culture, and so there is no way to the application of universal norms able to guide moral choices. Human rights are based on moral and ethical norms however fail to serve as a universal panacea to solve many problems concerning the protection of separate freedom. Therefore the universal formalization and legalization of child labour would require enormous contribution to be made by the international community, civil society and active pressure groups to solve the issue on the global agenda. To be genuinely effective ethical theory should be backed up by firm action and sustainable degree of individual responsibility for using child labour (Ridley, 1998 Penslar, 1995).Ethical theories based on relevant principles should be astray applied as the effective decision-making tools, though only their relevant combination seems most effective while coping wi th the child labour dilemma. Utilitarian ethics grounded on the casuistic theory may be used to objectively compare different viewpoints on child labour issue and offer the most appropriate choice of action. Ethical theories in various combinations help to analyze and manage critical situations in unbiased and constructive manner to come with the most correct solution from the ethical perspective. Thus, the abovementioned ethical theories can serve as a reliable framework to settle international child labour issues in the foreseeable future (Ridley, 1998 Penslar, 1995).List of ReferencesAdler, N. n.d., International Dimensions of Organization Behaviour, Canada Southwestern pp. 64-66.Boggan, S. 2001, Nike Admits to Mistakes over Child Labor, Online getable athttp//www.commondreams.org/headlines01/1020-01.htmGorgemans, A. n.d., Addressing Child Labor An Industry get on, Online Available athttp//usinfo.state.gov/journals/ites/0505/ijee/gorgemans.htmGuardian 2007, Child sweatshop sham e threatens Gaps ethical image, Online Available at http//www.guardian.co.uk/business/2007/oct/28/ethicalbusiness.indiaHall, E. n.d., Understanding Cultural Differences pp. 48-50.Harsono, A. 1996, Nike Accused of buckle down Child Labor, Online Available athttp//www.albionmonitor.com/9606a/nikelabor.htmlHindman, H., Smith, C. 1999, Cross-Cultural Ethics and the Child Labor Problem, Journal of Business Ethics, Volume 19, Number 1 / March, 1999Penslar, R. 1995. Research Ethics Cases and Materials. Bloomington Indiana University Press.Ridley, A. 1998, Beginning Bioethics. New York St. Martins Press.UN General Assembly Convention on the Rights of the Child, Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession byGeneral Assembly consequence 44/25of 20 November 1989 entry into force 2 September 1990, in accordance with article 49UNICEF, 2008 Child protection from violence, exploitation and abuse, Online Available at http//www.unicef.org/protection/index_childlabour.html

Look At Causal Comparative Research Psychology Essay

Look At Causal Comparative Research psychology EssayCausal- comparative look into visualize can be defined as a research that permits researchers to study naturally occurring, pee-pee and effect relationship through and through proportion of data from thespian meetings who exhibit the inconsistents of interest. Causal-comparative research can also be referred to as ex post facto, Latin for after the fact (Sowell, 2001). In early(a) words, causative-comparative research can be studied in retrospect since it attempts to make reasons or causes for the existing condition amid or among groups of individuals. This research design is often found in the fields of education, medicine and social sciences. consort to Sullivan (2001), The belief that there is order in the universe, that there are reasons why e trulything happens, and that scientists, use the procedures of science, can discover what those reasons are explains that researchers usually go on to examine the reasons why the observed pattern exist and what they suggest. For this reason, the basic element of causative-comparative approach regards scratch line with an effect and seeking for possible causes or vice versa. The basic approach, which involves starting with effects and investigating causes, is sometimes referred to as retrospective causal-comparative research. Retrospective causal-comparative studies are lots more(prenominal) common in educational research. Meanwhile, the variation which starts with causes and investigates effects is called prospective causal-comparative research.The cause and effect relationships may influence how a problem is formulated and a research design developed. It can be said that the major purpose of causal-comparative research is to investigate potential cause-and-effect relationships that occur naturally without manipulation of variables. In this particular research design, researchers try to find the reasons why certain forms of behaviour occur. To form ulate this research design it requires at least both variables videlicet in myrmecophilous and strung-out variable to support the objective of the research. In this approach, it can be said that some sovereign variable (IV) is the factor, or hotshot of some(prenominal) factors, that produces variation in a dependent variable (DV) (Sullivan, 2001). Consider, for instance a researcher formed 3 groups of preschoolers consist of those who never watched sesame Street, those who watched it sometimes, and those who watched it frequently. The 3 groups were then quized by making comparison on a reading readiness test. Based on the menti nonpareild case study, it shows that the independent variable affect the dependent variable. In this case, Sesame Street is the independent variable (IV) while the preschoolers reading performance is the dependent variable (DV).The Characteristics of Causal-comparative ResearchAccording to Babbie (2013), there are trio main characteristics for causa l-comparative. Firstly, to sympathize the existence of a cause and effect relationship, the causal-comparative research must demonstrate an association between the independent and dependent variable. therefore, it involves two or more groups and one independent variable. In addition, it determines the cause or consequences of differences that already exists between or among groups of individuals. The groups are assigned to the interpositions and the study is carried out. The individuals are non randomly assigned to treatment groups because they were already selected into groups in the lead the research began.In this research, it can be said that cause and effect depends on each other, whereby the cause may precedes the effect or vice versa. It is important to note that the independent variables in causal-comparative cannot be manipulated, should not be manipulated, or simply not manipulated but could be manipulated because the independent variable has already occurred. Thus, it is not possible to manipulate the independent variable.Causal-comparative research requires the study to be non-spurious. In this context, non-spurious refers to a causal relationship between two variables. According to Babbie (2013), spurious relationship is a coincidental statistical correlation between two variables, shown to be ca utilize by some third variable. However, in causal-comparative research, only two variables are required and not caused by the action of some third variable, therefore it is shown that causal-comparative research is non-spurious.There are two types of causes that contribute to this research design, namely necessary and fit causes. Generally, the term cause is assumed to mean something that produce an effect, result, or consequence. A necessary cause tallys a condition that must be present for the effect to follow. For example, it is necessary for you to attend driving classes in order to get a driving license. However, by only attending driving clas ses is not a sufficient cause of getting a license. This is because it is required to pass the driving test to get the driving license.On the other hand, a sufficient cause represents a condition that, if it is present, guarantees the effect in question (Babbie, 2013). This is not to say that a sufficient cause is the only possible cause of a particular effect. Take the case of the driving test mentioned earlier not attending the test would be a sufficient cause for failing it, though students could fail it in other ways as well. Thus, a cause can be sufficient, but not necessary.Design and ProcedureThe selection of the comparison groups is very important in causal-comparative procedure. Although the independent variable is not manipulated, there are tick procedures that can be exercised to improve the interpretation of results. The researcher selects two groups of participants, the experimental and harbour groups, but more accurately referred to as comparison groups. These two gr oups may differ in two ways whether one group possesses a characteristic that the other does not or each group has the characteristic, but they differ in terms of degrees and amounts. The independent variable differentiating the groups must be clearly and operationally defined, since each group represents a different population. In designing this research, the random take is selected from two already existing populations, and not from a single population.A causal-comparative design is chosen, for example, when researchers want to study the possible influences of Montessori school archive on childrens numerical force. Researchers locate a population in which several levels of mathematical cleverness are known to exist and then select a exemplar of participants. The researchers collect data from all participants on measurings of mathematical ability and school enrolment. Once they have collected their data, researchers decide how many levels of mathematical ability they wish to study. In this case, suppose the researchers want two groups. They could classify the participants lashings accordingly from highest to lowest, and then locate the middle score of the list. All those participants whose measures are above the middle score are designated as high mathematical ability and those below it, low mathematical ability.Next, the researchers compare labor movement performance scores in each group to see whether Montessori school enrolment appears to influence task performance. There are three possibilities that could emerge from the study.Montessori school children have high scores than non-Montessori school children.Montessori school children have lower scores than non-Montessori school children.No discernible pattern shows in the scores of Montessori and non-Montessori school children.This shows that each statement suggests a possible relationship between the two variables which are Montessori school enrolment and the childrens mathematical ability.Measure ment of second variableGroup BGroup AMeasurement of first variable determines group placements of participantsParticipant selection reason out exampleMontessori school childrenParticipant selectionMeasurement of mathematical abilityMeasurement of Montessori school enrolmentNon-Montessori school childrenExample of school enrolment and mathematical abilityFIGURE 1 Procedures in causal-comparative designs.3.1 Control ProceduresIn other study design, random assignment of participants to groups is probably the best way to try to undertake equality of groups, but random assignment is not possible in causal comparative studies because the groups are naturally formed before the start of the study. There is a possibility to have extraneous variable in a causal comparative research that may affect the overall purpose of the study. Thus, direct techniques are used to compare the sample groups equally. There are three common control techniques that can be used, namely matching, comparing homo genous groups or subgroups and analysis of covariance.Matching can be defined as a technique for equating groups on one or more variables. If researchers identify a variable likely to influence performance on the dependent variable, they may control for that variable by pair-wise matching of participants. In other words, for each participant in one group, the researcher finds a participant in the other group with the same or very similar score on the control variable. If a participant in other group does not have a suitable match, the participant is eliminated from the study. Thus, the resulting match groups are identical or very similar with respect to the identified extraneous variable.Another way to control extraneous variable is to compare groups that are homogenous with respect to the extraneous variable. The more similar the two groups are on such variables, the more homogenous they are on everything but the variable of interest. This homogeneity makes a stronger study and red uces the deed of possible alternative, explanations of the research findings. Not surprisingly, then, a number of control procedures correct for identified in equalities on such variables. This approach also permits the researcher to determine whether the target grouping variable affects the dependent variable differently at different levels of control variable. That is, the researcher can examine whether the effect on the dependent variable is different for each subgroup.depth psychology of covariance is a statistical technique used to adjust initial group differences on variables used in causal comparative and experimental studies. In essence, analysis of covariance adjusts scores on a dependent variable for initial differences on some other variable link to performance on the dependent variable. Analysis of covariance statistically adjusts the scores of the group to remove the initial value so that at the end of the study, the results can be fairly compared, as if the two grou ps started equally.4. Data Analysis and InterpretationAnalysis of data in causal-comparative research involves a variety of descriptive and inferential statistics. The close to commonly used descriptive statistics are mean and standard deviation. Mean indicates the average performance of a group on some measure of a variable. Standard deviation is a measure of the dispersion of a set of data from its mean. The more spread apart the data, the higher the deviation. Standard deviation is measured as the square root of variance.The most commonly used inferential statistics are t tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and chi square. T tests are used to determine whether the means of two groups are statistically different from one another. ANOVA is used to determine if there is significant difference among the means of three or more groups. Babbie (2013) defined chi square as a frequently used test of significance in social science. In other words chi square tests are used to determine wh ether there is an association between two or more categories. Chi square test explains that observed frequencies of the items or events in categories are compared with expected frequencies.Similarities and Differences between Related Research DesignsCausal-comparative versus Correlational ResearchIt is better to know that the major purpose of correlational research is to determine the magnitude and direction of associations or relationships among variables. Even with different purpose, correlational research is sometimes confused with causal-comparative since both lack manipulation of variables and requires discourage in interpreting results. In addition, both researches seek to explore relationships among variables, and when relationships are identified, both research designs are often studied at a by and by time by means of experimental research.However, causal-comparative and correlational research still can be differentiated. Compared to correlational research, causal-comparat ive compare two or more groups of subjects, whereas correlational research only focus on one group. In addition, correlational research has no attempts to understand cause and effect whereas causal-comparative studies purpose is to identify the cause and effect relationships between the variables. Apart from that, correlational research involves two or more variables and one group while causal-comparative involves two or more groups and one independent variable.Causal-comparative versus Experimental DesignCausal-comparative can also be confused with experimental research both attempt to establish cause-effect relationships between variables and both involve group comparisons. In addition, both causal-comparative and experimental research can test hypotheses concerning the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.The difference between the two researches is that in causal-comparative, the individuals are already in groups before study begins, whereas in e xperimental design, individuals are randomly assigned to treatment or control groups. Moreover, the random sample studies for causal-comparative is selected from two already-existing populations, while in experimental research, the random sample is selected from only one population. The researcher in experimental research manipulates the independent variable that is, the researcher determines who is going to get what treatment. In contrast, in causal-comparative research, individuals are not randomly assigned to treatment groups because they are in constituted groups before the research begins. The example for the established group can be male or female, college graduates or non-graduates. In causal-comparative research the groups are already formed and already differ in terms of the key variable in question. In other words, the independent variable in experimental research can be manipulated by the researcher to determine the researchs effect, whereas the independent variable in c ausal-comparative cannot be manipulated since the independent variable has already occurred.Advantages of Causal-Comparative ResearchLike other research designs, causal-comparative research has its strength and weaknesses. One of the strengths is that the causes are being studied after they presumably have applied their effect on another variable. The researchers might administer a questionnaire to study the causes or they can also do interviews and observation to find the cause or effect related to their research. For example, a researcher may contemplate that participant in preschool education is the major factor contributing to differences in the social adjustment of first graders. To examine this hypothesis, the researcher would select a sample of first graders who had participated in pre-school education and a sample of first graders who had not and would then compare the social adjustment of the two groups. If the children who participated in pre-school education exhibited th e higher level of social adjustment, the researchers hypothesis would be supported. Thus, the basic causal-comparative approach involve starting with an effect (i.e., social adjustment) and seeking possible causes (i.e., did pre-school affect it).Another advantage of causal-comparative research method is that it allows us to study cause-and-effect relationships under conditions where experimental manipulation is difficult or impossible. Unlike experimental research, the variable in causal comparative research is not manipulated because it has already occurred. For example, a researcher might be interested in determining the effect of poor parenting on the issue of teen delinquency. Clearly it would not be ethical to approach the parents and ask about how they raise their children because it is too personal to discuss family issues to an outsider. Thus, causal comparative research permits probe on a number of variables that cannot be studied experimentally.In addition, causal-compa rative studies help to identify variables worthy of experimental investigation. In fact, causal comparative studies are conducted altogether to identify the probable outcome of an experimental study. In other words, many relationships can be studied in a single research study. tell for example, a researcher were considering implementing estimator assisted linguistic process learning in the school system. Before implementing the mentioned program, the researcher might consider trying it out on an experimental basis for a year in a number of schools or classrooms. However, even such limited adoption would require costly novel equipment and teacher training. Thus, as a preliminary measure, to inform the decision, the researcher could conduct a causal comparative study to compare the English terminology performance of students in school who are currently using the instruction with the English quarrel gainment who are not using it. If the results indicated that the students lear ning through computer assisted language learning instruction were achieving higher scores, the researcher would probably decide to go ahead with an experimental tryout of computer assisted language learning instruction. If no differences were found, the researcher would probably not go ahead with the experimental tryout to save time, cost and effort.Disadvantages of Causal-Comparative ResearchDespite its many advantages, causal comparative research has some serious limitations to be caution of. In causal comparative research, the researcher has limited control over the study and extreme point caution must be applied in interpreting results. This is because the groups are already formed at the beginning of the study. An apparent cause-effect relation may not be as it appears. The alleged cause of an observed effect may in fact be the effect itself, or, a third variable may have caused both the apparent cause and the effect. In other words, an observed relationship between variable A and B can mean that A causes B, B causes B, or a third variable C causes both A and B.AcausesCcausesBABcausesBBcausesFigure 2 Relationships of variablesFor example, suppose a researcher hypothesized that enrolment to preschool is a determinant of reading achievement. The researcher would compare the achievement of two groups, one comprising individuals with children who went to preschool and children who did not go to preschool. If those who went to preschool performed better on reading measures, the researcher could be tempted to conclude that going to preschool influences reading achievement. However, this conclusion would be groundless. Because the participants arrived at the beginning of the study with an established group of children who went to preschool and children who did not, and an established level of reading achievement, it is not possible to determine which came first and which influence the other. Moreover, it is very plausible that some third variable, such as parent al attitude, is the main influence on both reading achievement and pre-schooling. For example, parents who sent their children to preschool and encourage their children may have children who have higher reading achievement.Analysis of Studies Using Causal-comparative Research DesignOne of the major findings within the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research is the different rates of success with which children and adults achieve nativelike proficiency in a second language (L2).() It is also common in SLA studies that mostly L2 learners do not attain nativelike proficiency because of their first language maintenance. In a research report entitled Does first language maintenance hamper nativelikeness in a second language? by Bylund, Abrahamsson and Hyltensam of capital of Sweden University, they aim to address the role of L1 proficiency in L2 attainment. In this study, the researchers hypothesized that the second language learners do not attain nativelike proficiency becau se of their first language maintenance. It is recognised that the independent variable in this research is the first language maintenance, whereas, the dependent variable is the nativelikeness in a second language. It shows that there is clearly an association between the two variables since the independent variable (IV), which is the first language maintenance might probably affect the dependent variable, which is the second language.To examine the hypothesis, the researchers select a sample population consists of Spanish-speaking immigrant community in Sweden, where residents of Chilean origin are in the community. 30 L1 Spanish-and L2 Swedish residents participated in the study where they acquire their second language before the age of twelve. The bilinguals came from countries throughout Latin America with a specific concentration in Chile. The participants were either university students or degree-holder. A common denominator of the participants was that they exhibited a princ ipally high level of L2 proficiency. For the second group, fifteen native speakers of Spanish and fifteen native speakers of Swedish were recruited as monolingual controls. The researchers choose small sample populations to represent the study populations. The control groups were matched to the bilingual participants by educational level. In the process of matching the variables and groups, it can be said that pure monolingualism was not a measuring stick for participation, and the majority of the participants had foreign language skills such as English language. In addition, none of the control participants had lived abroad for any significant length of time in a telescope in which their foreign language skills could be practiced. These two groups will be referred to as Spanish-speaking control and Swedish-speaking controls participants.Bilingual participants were tested independently in each language on two different occasions. The bilinguals and the Swedish-speaking controls we re tested in the same setting and instructors and the Spanish-speaking controls were tested in another setting with another instructor. The language proficiency of the participants were investigated by piloting a grammaticality judgment test (GJT) to find out about the samples grammatical intuition. Furthermore, in order to measure the participants semantic and grammatical inferencing skills, a cloze test was piloted to all participants.

Conflict Between Efficiency and Sense of :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Conflict Between Efficiency and Sense of LudusABSTRACT Efficiency is a highly considered virtue, especi all(prenominal)y in our contemporaneous scientific society. It appears to be remote to the sense of ludus (playfulness) that is greatly respectd in Brazilian gloss. Is this troth real? Is it a definite arrest to modernisticization? This paper deals with this apparent conflict of values, laborious to find a way toward a harmonious integration of them. Efficiency is sh give as the virtue of a culture turned toward modernity. It is therefore highly prized in contemporary business administration theories. It is also shown that the whole of modern society is point toward technological adduce and it consequently tends to value efficiency above all other values. Considering other values found in different cultures, there needs to be a better knowledge of them. This study establishes ludus as a typical value of Brazilian culture. An analogy is drawn between the sense of playful ness described and praised by Brazilian authors, and the sense of detachment from technology proposed by Jacques Ellus as a condition for creating a real civilization with technological progress. Efficiency is a value highly considered, particularly in our contemporary technological society. It is apparently opposed to the sense of ludus that is greatly valued in Brazilian culture. Ludus comes from the Latin word heart and soul playfulness. Is the conflict between efficiency and sense of ludus a real conflict? Is it a definite obstructionist to technological development?This paper intends to show that the conflict is in fact apparent, the values being different and not contradictory. There is a way of integrating them.Efficiency is highly prized in a culture turned toward productivity. It is therefore cultivated in contemporary business administration theories. It also tends to be prized above all other values in modern society, as society is more and more oriented toward technol ogical advancement.On the other hand, Brazilian writers have time and again described and praised the value of a sense of ludus, playfulness, therefore indicating that it is a value of their own culture. It might be said that a strong sense of playfulness, ludus, would be an impediment towards fully entering modern society and assimilating modern values.To play the problem, an analogy is drawn between the sense of playfulness, ludus, described and praised by Brazilian authors, and the sense of detachment proposed by Jacques Ellul as a condition for bringing roughly real civilization with technological progress.Thus, a claim is made that a ludical sense, rather than being an impediment to modernization, is a way to overcome the dangers of uncritical technological development.Conflict Between Efficiency and Sense of Philosophy Philosophical EssaysConflict Between Efficiency and Sense of LudusABSTRACT Efficiency is a highly considered virtue, specially in our contemporary techno logical society. It appears to be opposed to the sense of ludus (playfulness) that is greatly valued in Brazilian culture. Is this conflict real? Is it a definite impediment to modernization? This paper deals with this apparent conflict of values, trying to find a way toward a harmonious integration of them. Efficiency is shown as the virtue of a culture turned toward modernity. It is therefore highly prized in contemporary business administration theories. It is also shown that the whole of modern society is oriented toward technological advance and it consequently tends to value efficiency above all other values. Considering other values found in different cultures, there needs to be a better knowledge of them. This study establishes ludus as a typical value of Brazilian culture. An analogy is drawn between the sense of playfulness described and praised by Brazilian authors, and the sense of detachment from technology proposed by Jacques Ellus as a condition for creating a real ci vilization with technological progress. Efficiency is a value highly considered, particularly in our contemporary technological society. It is apparently opposed to the sense of ludus that is greatly valued in Brazilian culture. Ludus comes from the Latin word meaning playfulness. Is the conflict between efficiency and sense of ludus a real conflict? Is it a definite impediment to technological development?This paper intends to show that the conflict is in fact apparent, the values being contrary and not contradictory. There is a way of integrating them.Efficiency is highly prized in a culture turned toward productivity. It is therefore cultivated in contemporary business administration theories. It also tends to be prized above all other values in modern society, as society is more and more oriented toward technological advancement.On the other hand, Brazilian writers have time and again described and praised the value of a sense of ludus, playfulness, therefore indicating that it is a value of their own culture. It might be said that a strong sense of playfulness, ludus, would be an impediment towards fully entering modern society and assimilating modern values.To solve the problem, an analogy is drawn between the sense of playfulness, ludus, described and praised by Brazilian authors, and the sense of detachment proposed by Jacques Ellul as a condition for bringing about real civilization with technological progress.Thus, a claim is made that a ludical sense, rather than being an impediment to modernization, is a way to overcome the dangers of uncritical technological development.

Tornado Essay -- Natural Disasters Weather

A tornado is defined as a boisterously rotating column extending from a thunderstorm to the ground. The most violent tornadoes are capable of tremendous destruction with wind speeds of devil hundred and fifty miles per hour or more. Damage paths can be more than single mile wide and fifty miles long. In an average year, eight hundred tornadoes are reported nationwide, resulting in eighty deaths and over one thousand quintuple hundred injuries. In the body of my essay, I will tell you about types of tornadoes, where tornadoes come from, where and when tornadoes occur, the damage they inflict, variations of tornadoes, and how to detect tornadoes.There are many types of tornadoes. The average tornado is commonly split up into categories based on the strength of the tornado. Most tornadoes, about sixty nine percent 69%, are considered weak, which means they usually last between one minute and ten minutes, have winds less than one hundred and ten miles per hour, and the percent of deaths that occur during these is less than five percent. industrial-strength tornadoes, about twenty nine percent 29%, may last about twenty minutes, have winds between one hundred and ten and two hundred and five miles per hour, and the percent of deaths that are found are about thirty percent of all tornado deaths. The last category for tornadoes is violent ones. With these comes winds great than two hundred and five miles per hour, they can last about an hour, and have seventy percent of all deaths from tornadoes. Another type of tornado is known as a waterspout. This is a weak tornado that forms over warm water. They are most common along the Gulf Coast and southeastern states. In the horse opera United States, they occur with cold late fall or late winter storms, during a time when you least expect it to develop. They occasionally move interior becoming tornadoes that can cause a great deal of damage and many injuries. Most tornadoes evolve from energy. Tornadoes come from the energy released in a thunderstorm. As powerful as they are, tornadoes account for only a tiny fraction of the energy in a thunderstorm. What makes them dangerous is that their energy is concentrated in a small area, perhaps only a hundred yards across. Not all tornadoes are the same, of course, and science does not yet completely understand how part of a thunderstorms energy sometimes gets focused into something as small as a tornad... ...ms using all the information they can obtain from digest maps, modern weather radars, storm spotters, monitoring power line breaks, and so on.These are all important tornado facts and reasons of why this phenomenon occurs. Tornadoes are natural disasters that we can not do anything about, we just have to learn to live with them and be smart about how we approach them. There is no preventing a tornado from occurring so we essential merely take all the precautions so we will be safe.BibliographyRosenfeld, Jeffrey O. Eye of the Storm Inside th e Worlds Deadliest Hurricanes, Tornadoes, and Blizzards HarperCollins Trade Sales Dept, January 1999Robinson, Andrew, Earth Shock Hurricanes, Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Tornadoes and Other Forces of record Themes & Hudson Ltd., September 1993Tufty, Barbara 1001 Questions Answered about Hurricanes, Tornadoes, and Other Natural Air Disasters Dover Publications, Incorporated, August 1987Verkaik, Arjen Under the Whirlwind Whirlwind Books, March 1998Miller, Norman How A Whirlwind Works Geographical Magazine, June 1999Comptons Encyclopedia Online www.comptons.comSKYWARN Online www.skywarn.org